Homework
Explain the use of electromagnets in four of the following (diagram aid):
a) Loudspeaker
b) Telephone
c) Electric Motor
d) Circuit Breaker
e) Relay Switch
A. Loudspeaker:
The loudspeakers in your radio, TV or stereo system use varying electric current through an electromagnet to create sound. The electric current varies at a fast rate, causing the strength of the magnetic field to vary. This results in moving the loudspeaker membrane or cone back and forth rapidly, resulting in sound and even music.
The coil of the electromagnet is called a field coil and is energized by direct current through a second pair of terminals. This winding usually served a dual role, acting also as a choke coil filtering the power supply of the amplifier which the loudspeaker was connected to.
Diagram:
B. Telephone:
Modern telephone systems rely on electromagnets. The telephone receiver is basically an electromagnet with a U-shaped yoke having coils wound on each leg of the U. Passage of the electrical signal through the coils causes magnetic attraction of a soft iron diaphragm supported a small distance from the ends of the U. The diaphragm moves in and out, pulling and pushes the air in front of it, generating sound waves. The pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he hears the words of the speaker.
Diagram: Basic Electromagnet setup in telephones
C. Electric Motor:
An electric motor utilizes the property of electromagnetic induction to convert electricity into mechanical energy to make things move. Motors consist of two basic units, the field, which is the electromagnet with its coils, and the armature, the structure that supports the conductors. The conductor itself, a coiled wire, will move to oppose the magnetic field. Just when it gets into position the current is reversed, and the coil spins round and round like a dog chasing its tail, full of mechanical energy. The armature cuts the magnetic field and carries the exciting current to others parts of the motor to be used to do mechanical work.
Diagram:
D. Circuit Breaker:
In an electromagnet circuit breaker, the circuit breaker consists of a simple switch, connected to an electromagnet.
The hot wire in the circuit connects to the two ends of the switch. When the switch is flipped to the on position, electricity can flow from the bottom terminal, through the electromagnet, up to the moving contact, across to the stationary contact and out to the upper terminal.
The electricity magnetizes the electromagnet. Increasing current boosts the electromagnet's magnetic force, and decreasing current lowers the magnetism. When the current jumps to unsafe levels, the magnetic field in the electromagnet is strong enough to trip the breaker and allow the contacts to open. The entire linkage shifts, tilting the moving contact away from the stationary contact to break the circuit. The electricity shuts off.
Diagram:
Friday, December 14, 2007
Gravity
Aristotle
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher. His contributions to gravity included the Aristotelian theory of gravity, made around 350 B.C., which was a flawed theory that stated all bodies move towards their “natural place.” According to Aristotle, all objects have a natural tendency to fall towards the centre of the Universe. Since the centre of the Earth coincides with the centre of the Universe, all objects also tend to fall towards the Earth's surface. For some objects, Aristotle claimed the natural place to be the centre of the earth, wherefore they fall towards it.
So, why do the planets not fall towards the Earth? Well, according to Aristotle, the planets are embedded in crystal spheres which rotate with them whilst holding them in place in the firmament. The natural place is the heavenly spheres, wherefore gases, steam for example, move away from the centre of the earth and towards heaven and to the moon. The speed of this motion was thought to be proportional to the weight of the object. He also thought there were two types of perfect motion, straight lines and circles; and that the only objects that couldn't move in straight lines were made of aether - the stars and planets. They, therefore, had to move in perfect circles.
Aristotle didn't believe in experiment. His logic told him that he was right. We still call the phenomenon he contemplated, gravity, which comes from the Latin word gravitas, meaning heavy.
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Galileo Galilei
Galileo was an Italian scientist of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Galileo’s contribution, before Newton, to the knowledge of gravity was that objects with different masses – an apple and a melon, for instance – fall at the same velocity, will hit the ground at the same time.
In 1585 he conducted this experiment, in which he dropped the two objects of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, in Italy, to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). He thus proved that objects fall at the same rate and accelerate as they fall. This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter the body will rise in direct proportion to weight.
Galileo also performed experiments involving rolling balls down inclined planes, which proved the same thing: falling or rolling objects (rolling is a slower version of falling, as long as the distribution of mass in the objects is the same) are accelerated independently of their mass.
Galileo realized that bodies in air also experience buoyant forces (upthrust) that oppose the pull of gravity. If the buoyant forces overcome gravity, then the body will rise. If gravity is stronger, then the body will fall.
Galileo realized that gravity not only causes a body to fall, but also determines the motion of rising bodies and, furthermore, that gravity extends to the centre of the Earth. Galileo then showed that the motion of a projectile is made up of two components: one component consists of uniform motion in a horizontal direction, and the other component is vertical motion under acceleration or deceleration due to gravity. Galileo explained that the motion of a bird, like a projectile, has a horizontal component that is provided by the motion of the Earth and that this horizontal component of motion always exists to keep such objects in position even though they are not attached to the ground.
Galileo’s Equation
He had the brilliant idea of slowing vertical motion by measuring the movement of balls rolling down inclined planes, realizing that the vertical component of this motion is a uniform acceleration due to gravity.
He determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration: the total distance covered, starting from rest, is proportional to the square of the time. He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force — often friction — acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them. Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. He made substantial contributions to the laws of gravity. Newton formulated laws of universal gravitation and motion—laws that explain how objects move on Earth as well as through the heavens. Newton began with the laws of motion and gravitation he observed in nature, then used these laws to convert physics from a mere science of explanation into a general mathematical system with rules and laws.
Around 1665, he recorded his first thoughts on gravitation, inspired (according to legend) by observing the fall of an apple in an orchard. According to a report of a conversation with Newton in his old age, he said he was trying to determine what type of force could hold the Moon in its path around Earth. The fall of an apple led him to think that the attractive gravitational force acting on the apple might be the same force acting on the Moon. Newton believed that this force, although weakened by distance, held the Moon in its orbit.
Newton devised a numerical equation to verify his ideas about gravity. The equation is called the inverse square law of attraction, and it states that the force of gravity is related to the inverse square of the distance between the two objects (that is, the number 1 divided by the distance between the two objects times itself). Newton believed this law should apply to the Sun and the planets as well. He did not pursue the problem of the falling apple at the time, because calculating the combined attraction of the whole Earth on a small body near its surface seemed too difficult. He reintroduced these early thoughts years later in his more thorough work, the Principia, in 1687. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He defined the law of universal gravitation.
Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation states the following: Every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force directed along the line connecting the two. This force is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German physicist of the 20th century. His contributions to gravity included, in November 1915, presenting a series of lectures before the Prussian Academy of Sciences in which he described his theory of gravity, known as general relativity. Einstein's equations joined space and time together. This theory of relativity reconciled Maxwell's equations of light with Newton's laws of motion. The final lecture ended with his introduction of an equation that replaced Newton's law of gravity. This theory considered all observers to be equivalent, not only those moving at a uniform speed. In general relativity, gravity is no longer a force (as it is in Newton's law of gravity) but is a consequence of the curvature of space-time.
Einstein’s Equation
This description of gravity cleared up a small mystery about free-fall. Massive objects have a lot of momentum, and are difficult to stop or turn around. That is described by inertial mass. Massive objects also create a strong gravitational force. That is described by gravitational mass.
Gravitational Mass measures how much gravity an object creates. Inertial Mass measures how an object reacts to a force. Newton had explained free-fall by equating these two types of mass, but it is not entirely clear why this should be the case. Einstein said that gravitational mass is the same as inertial mass, because gravity is the same as inertia.
One part of this problem was solved in 1908 when a painter fell off a roof. Einstein heard of the accident, and asked the painter what it felt like to fall. He found out that while falling freely, the painter felt weightless. Einstein realised that a body that is freely falling along a path under the influence of gravity is behaving similarly to an object moving in a straight line under inertia.
Most astronomers did not like Einstein's geometrization of gravity and believed that his light bending and gravitational red shift predictions would not be correct.
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Summary
As early as around 350 B.C.E. the philosopher Aristotle was thinking about gravity. He decided that all objects were attracted to their "natural place." For some objects, that natural place was the heavenly spheres, explaining why steam rises for example. For some objects, the natural place was the center of the universe (at that time, the center of the Earth), thus explaining why heavy things fall. Aristotle thought that heavier objects were more strongly attracted to their natural places than light objects.
Aristotle's theory was superseded by the work of Galileo Galilei.
In 1585, Galileo tried dropping objects with differing weights to see what happened, actually conducting experiments which Aristotle did not. He supposedly dropped some of his weights from the leaning tower of Pisa. Galileo found that if he dropped an object that weighed ten times as much as another, the light object did not take ten times as long to hit the ground. It took exactly the same time.
He proved that the objects’ time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). He thus proved that objects fall at the same rate and accelerate as they fall. Aristotle was obviously wrong. Galileo also realized that gravity not only causes a body to fall, but also determines the motion of rising bodies and, furthermore, that gravity extends to the centre of the Earth, so the Earth is affected by gravity as well. He had the brilliant idea of slowing vertical motion by measuring the movement of balls rolling down inclined planes, and determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration.
The next revolution in the understanding of gravity came with Isaac Newton's mathematical formulation of a law of universal gravitation, which he published in Principia Mathematica in 1687. Through experiments, supposedly the fall of an apple, Newton described the gravitational force held on the Moon in its orbit, as well as falling objects. He devised the inverse square law of attraction, and his three laws of motion. He defined the law of universal gravitation.
The next person to see farther was, of course, Albert Einstein, who, in 1915, revolutionized the view of gravity by developing a geometrical view where gravity is not viewed as a force, but rather as a manifestation of curved space-time. Massive objects have a lot of momentum, and are difficult to stop or turn around. That is described by inertial mass. Massive objects also create a strong gravitational force. That is described by gravitational mass.
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Bibliography
The following websites were our sources of information:
http://
www.tiscali.co.uk
www.iep.utm.edu
www.philosophypages.com
www.encarta.com
www.factmonster.comwww.sparknotes.com
www.galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu
www.csep10.phys.utk.edu
www.lepton.phys.washington.edu
www.wikipedia.org
www.newton.cam.ac.uk
www.archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu
www.seed.slb.com
www.galileo.rice.edu
www.www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk
www.lucidcafe.com
www.jadetower.org
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher. His contributions to gravity included the Aristotelian theory of gravity, made around 350 B.C., which was a flawed theory that stated all bodies move towards their “natural place.” According to Aristotle, all objects have a natural tendency to fall towards the centre of the Universe. Since the centre of the Earth coincides with the centre of the Universe, all objects also tend to fall towards the Earth's surface. For some objects, Aristotle claimed the natural place to be the centre of the earth, wherefore they fall towards it.
So, why do the planets not fall towards the Earth? Well, according to Aristotle, the planets are embedded in crystal spheres which rotate with them whilst holding them in place in the firmament. The natural place is the heavenly spheres, wherefore gases, steam for example, move away from the centre of the earth and towards heaven and to the moon. The speed of this motion was thought to be proportional to the weight of the object. He also thought there were two types of perfect motion, straight lines and circles; and that the only objects that couldn't move in straight lines were made of aether - the stars and planets. They, therefore, had to move in perfect circles.
Aristotle didn't believe in experiment. His logic told him that he was right. We still call the phenomenon he contemplated, gravity, which comes from the Latin word gravitas, meaning heavy.
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Galileo Galilei
Galileo was an Italian scientist of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Galileo’s contribution, before Newton, to the knowledge of gravity was that objects with different masses – an apple and a melon, for instance – fall at the same velocity, will hit the ground at the same time.
In 1585 he conducted this experiment, in which he dropped the two objects of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, in Italy, to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). He thus proved that objects fall at the same rate and accelerate as they fall. This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter the body will rise in direct proportion to weight.
Galileo also performed experiments involving rolling balls down inclined planes, which proved the same thing: falling or rolling objects (rolling is a slower version of falling, as long as the distribution of mass in the objects is the same) are accelerated independently of their mass.
Galileo realized that bodies in air also experience buoyant forces (upthrust) that oppose the pull of gravity. If the buoyant forces overcome gravity, then the body will rise. If gravity is stronger, then the body will fall.
Galileo realized that gravity not only causes a body to fall, but also determines the motion of rising bodies and, furthermore, that gravity extends to the centre of the Earth. Galileo then showed that the motion of a projectile is made up of two components: one component consists of uniform motion in a horizontal direction, and the other component is vertical motion under acceleration or deceleration due to gravity. Galileo explained that the motion of a bird, like a projectile, has a horizontal component that is provided by the motion of the Earth and that this horizontal component of motion always exists to keep such objects in position even though they are not attached to the ground.
Galileo’s Equation
He had the brilliant idea of slowing vertical motion by measuring the movement of balls rolling down inclined planes, realizing that the vertical component of this motion is a uniform acceleration due to gravity.
He determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration: the total distance covered, starting from rest, is proportional to the square of the time. He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force — often friction — acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them. Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. He made substantial contributions to the laws of gravity. Newton formulated laws of universal gravitation and motion—laws that explain how objects move on Earth as well as through the heavens. Newton began with the laws of motion and gravitation he observed in nature, then used these laws to convert physics from a mere science of explanation into a general mathematical system with rules and laws.
Around 1665, he recorded his first thoughts on gravitation, inspired (according to legend) by observing the fall of an apple in an orchard. According to a report of a conversation with Newton in his old age, he said he was trying to determine what type of force could hold the Moon in its path around Earth. The fall of an apple led him to think that the attractive gravitational force acting on the apple might be the same force acting on the Moon. Newton believed that this force, although weakened by distance, held the Moon in its orbit.
Newton devised a numerical equation to verify his ideas about gravity. The equation is called the inverse square law of attraction, and it states that the force of gravity is related to the inverse square of the distance between the two objects (that is, the number 1 divided by the distance between the two objects times itself). Newton believed this law should apply to the Sun and the planets as well. He did not pursue the problem of the falling apple at the time, because calculating the combined attraction of the whole Earth on a small body near its surface seemed too difficult. He reintroduced these early thoughts years later in his more thorough work, the Principia, in 1687. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He defined the law of universal gravitation.
Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation states the following: Every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force directed along the line connecting the two. This force is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German physicist of the 20th century. His contributions to gravity included, in November 1915, presenting a series of lectures before the Prussian Academy of Sciences in which he described his theory of gravity, known as general relativity. Einstein's equations joined space and time together. This theory of relativity reconciled Maxwell's equations of light with Newton's laws of motion. The final lecture ended with his introduction of an equation that replaced Newton's law of gravity. This theory considered all observers to be equivalent, not only those moving at a uniform speed. In general relativity, gravity is no longer a force (as it is in Newton's law of gravity) but is a consequence of the curvature of space-time.
Einstein’s Equation
This description of gravity cleared up a small mystery about free-fall. Massive objects have a lot of momentum, and are difficult to stop or turn around. That is described by inertial mass. Massive objects also create a strong gravitational force. That is described by gravitational mass.
Gravitational Mass measures how much gravity an object creates. Inertial Mass measures how an object reacts to a force. Newton had explained free-fall by equating these two types of mass, but it is not entirely clear why this should be the case. Einstein said that gravitational mass is the same as inertial mass, because gravity is the same as inertia.
One part of this problem was solved in 1908 when a painter fell off a roof. Einstein heard of the accident, and asked the painter what it felt like to fall. He found out that while falling freely, the painter felt weightless. Einstein realised that a body that is freely falling along a path under the influence of gravity is behaving similarly to an object moving in a straight line under inertia.
Most astronomers did not like Einstein's geometrization of gravity and believed that his light bending and gravitational red shift predictions would not be correct.
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Summary
As early as around 350 B.C.E. the philosopher Aristotle was thinking about gravity. He decided that all objects were attracted to their "natural place." For some objects, that natural place was the heavenly spheres, explaining why steam rises for example. For some objects, the natural place was the center of the universe (at that time, the center of the Earth), thus explaining why heavy things fall. Aristotle thought that heavier objects were more strongly attracted to their natural places than light objects.
Aristotle's theory was superseded by the work of Galileo Galilei.
In 1585, Galileo tried dropping objects with differing weights to see what happened, actually conducting experiments which Aristotle did not. He supposedly dropped some of his weights from the leaning tower of Pisa. Galileo found that if he dropped an object that weighed ten times as much as another, the light object did not take ten times as long to hit the ground. It took exactly the same time.
He proved that the objects’ time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). He thus proved that objects fall at the same rate and accelerate as they fall. Aristotle was obviously wrong. Galileo also realized that gravity not only causes a body to fall, but also determines the motion of rising bodies and, furthermore, that gravity extends to the centre of the Earth, so the Earth is affected by gravity as well. He had the brilliant idea of slowing vertical motion by measuring the movement of balls rolling down inclined planes, and determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration.
The next revolution in the understanding of gravity came with Isaac Newton's mathematical formulation of a law of universal gravitation, which he published in Principia Mathematica in 1687. Through experiments, supposedly the fall of an apple, Newton described the gravitational force held on the Moon in its orbit, as well as falling objects. He devised the inverse square law of attraction, and his three laws of motion. He defined the law of universal gravitation.
The next person to see farther was, of course, Albert Einstein, who, in 1915, revolutionized the view of gravity by developing a geometrical view where gravity is not viewed as a force, but rather as a manifestation of curved space-time. Massive objects have a lot of momentum, and are difficult to stop or turn around. That is described by inertial mass. Massive objects also create a strong gravitational force. That is described by gravitational mass.
Done by: _________________________________________________
Date Given: _______________________________________________
Bibliography
The following websites were our sources of information:
http://
www.tiscali.co.uk
www.iep.utm.edu
www.philosophypages.com
www.encarta.com
www.factmonster.comwww.sparknotes.com
www.galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu
www.csep10.phys.utk.edu
www.lepton.phys.washington.edu
www.wikipedia.org
www.newton.cam.ac.uk
www.archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu
www.seed.slb.com
www.galileo.rice.edu
www.www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk
www.lucidcafe.com
www.jadetower.org
Taming of the Shrew
The Taming of the Shrew
Taming of the Shrew
1. Love, Loyalty
2. Deception
3. Relationship of Kat and Pet
4. Parenting, Baptista and Vinetio parents
5. Taming – Pet attempts to tame kate.
TKM
1. Mockingbirds, definition of mockingbris using text
2. Loyalty – who’s loyal to who, servants and whoever
3. COutship and marriage of all couples
4. Deception – Who was deceived, biondello, merchant, sly,
5. What are objectives of baptista, petrucho, lucentio and how are they met
1. Disception- Disguise/ Lies/ Trickery
- Disguise : horten, lucen, tran
- Lies : tran, pet
- Trickery : Lord, etc. induction
2. Analyze major characters
3. Bianca’s Suitors / Lucentio – courtship, wooing, wedding ,marriage
4. Kat / Petruchio – courtship. Marriage
5. Major themes – Act 2/3/5 scene 2 – Love/ Loyalty
6. Parenting/ Family/ Child and sibling
7. Servants and Master
Deception is everywhere in the Taming of the shrew. The whole play is brought together by deception. Our first hint is in the Induction when trickey is abound. A lord comes back from hunting and finds that there is drunk sleeping outside of a tavern? The lord decides to play a cruel joke on the man and takes him back to his palace, puts him in the finest chamber, summons servants to his every becon and call, dresses him in the finest clothes and even goes as far as pretending to be a servant himself and making the page a fake wife! The lord then arrages for Sly to watch the play of the Taming of the Shrew and this is when the play starts. The entire book is weaved together with stitches of lies. Lucentio aims to woo Bianca and become her husband, and abandons his studies and becomes a fake Latin teacher to do so. Once Cambio gets in the Minola residence he tries to woo Bianca through clever Latin translations which she replys in as well. The evidence that Bianca favours Lucentio over The other suitors is obvious as Hrtensio tries a clever music lesson but she doesn’t even afford him the glimmer of hope that she gave to Lucentio. With Tranio disguised as Lucentio and sttending his classes AND talking over the marriage with Baptista. All seems to be going well, until Baptista seeks verification of the lies of riches that Tranio has listed off. Baptista seeks to meet with VIncentio, Lucentio’s father who he has heard of. Of course Lucentio is not supposed to be wooing Bianca instead of studying
The disguises that Lucetio, Hortensio, Tranio and Biondello all don allow them to move throughout the social barriers of that day. A servant is transformed into a philosopher who is transformed into a latin tutor. Bptista’s aims are to marry off both of his daughters to wealthy men, Baptista does this by refusing all male suitors off Bianca and stating that Bianca will only be married if Kate is married first. When Petruccio turns up seeking Kate, it seems to be a godsend and Baptista’s plan has worked. With kates marriage but a week away and a man who seems to be in love with her (Actually her money) all is well in the Minola Residence. The act of marriying Bianca off is not even considered as a challenge as she has 3 possible choices.
VINCENTIO
Lucentio! Oh God, he's murdered his master! Restrain him! I charge you in the Duke's name. Oh, my son, my son! Tell me, you monster, where is my son Lucentio?
TRANIO
(as LUCENTIO) Call forth an officer.
An officer enters.
Take this mad wretch to jail.—Father-in-law Baptista, will you see that he's available to appear in court?
VINCENTIO
Take me off to jail?
GREMIO
Wait, officer. He mustn't go to prison.
BAPTISTA
Be quiet, Signior Gremio. I say he shall go to prison.
GREMIO
Be careful, Signior Baptista, lest you be made the dupe in this business. I could swear this is the real Vincentio.
MERCHANT
(as VINCENTIO) Swear, if thou darest.
MERCHANT
(as VINCENTIO) Can you swear to it?
Taming of the Shrew
1. Love, Loyalty
2. Deception
3. Relationship of Kat and Pet
4. Parenting, Baptista and Vinetio parents
5. Taming – Pet attempts to tame kate.
TKM
1. Mockingbirds, definition of mockingbris using text
2. Loyalty – who’s loyal to who, servants and whoever
3. COutship and marriage of all couples
4. Deception – Who was deceived, biondello, merchant, sly,
5. What are objectives of baptista, petrucho, lucentio and how are they met
1. Disception- Disguise/ Lies/ Trickery
- Disguise : horten, lucen, tran
- Lies : tran, pet
- Trickery : Lord, etc. induction
2. Analyze major characters
3. Bianca’s Suitors / Lucentio – courtship, wooing, wedding ,marriage
4. Kat / Petruchio – courtship. Marriage
5. Major themes – Act 2/3/5 scene 2 – Love/ Loyalty
6. Parenting/ Family/ Child and sibling
7. Servants and Master
Deception is everywhere in the Taming of the shrew. The whole play is brought together by deception. Our first hint is in the Induction when trickey is abound. A lord comes back from hunting and finds that there is drunk sleeping outside of a tavern? The lord decides to play a cruel joke on the man and takes him back to his palace, puts him in the finest chamber, summons servants to his every becon and call, dresses him in the finest clothes and even goes as far as pretending to be a servant himself and making the page a fake wife! The lord then arrages for Sly to watch the play of the Taming of the Shrew and this is when the play starts. The entire book is weaved together with stitches of lies. Lucentio aims to woo Bianca and become her husband, and abandons his studies and becomes a fake Latin teacher to do so. Once Cambio gets in the Minola residence he tries to woo Bianca through clever Latin translations which she replys in as well. The evidence that Bianca favours Lucentio over The other suitors is obvious as Hrtensio tries a clever music lesson but she doesn’t even afford him the glimmer of hope that she gave to Lucentio. With Tranio disguised as Lucentio and sttending his classes AND talking over the marriage with Baptista. All seems to be going well, until Baptista seeks verification of the lies of riches that Tranio has listed off. Baptista seeks to meet with VIncentio, Lucentio’s father who he has heard of. Of course Lucentio is not supposed to be wooing Bianca instead of studying
The disguises that Lucetio, Hortensio, Tranio and Biondello all don allow them to move throughout the social barriers of that day. A servant is transformed into a philosopher who is transformed into a latin tutor. Bptista’s aims are to marry off both of his daughters to wealthy men, Baptista does this by refusing all male suitors off Bianca and stating that Bianca will only be married if Kate is married first. When Petruccio turns up seeking Kate, it seems to be a godsend and Baptista’s plan has worked. With kates marriage but a week away and a man who seems to be in love with her (Actually her money) all is well in the Minola Residence. The act of marriying Bianca off is not even considered as a challenge as she has 3 possible choices.
VINCENTIO
Lucentio! Oh God, he's murdered his master! Restrain him! I charge you in the Duke's name. Oh, my son, my son! Tell me, you monster, where is my son Lucentio?
TRANIO
(as LUCENTIO) Call forth an officer.
An officer enters.
Take this mad wretch to jail.—Father-in-law Baptista, will you see that he's available to appear in court?
VINCENTIO
Take me off to jail?
GREMIO
Wait, officer. He mustn't go to prison.
BAPTISTA
Be quiet, Signior Gremio. I say he shall go to prison.
GREMIO
Be careful, Signior Baptista, lest you be made the dupe in this business. I could swear this is the real Vincentio.
MERCHANT
(as VINCENTIO) Swear, if thou darest.
MERCHANT
(as VINCENTIO) Can you swear to it?
To Kill A Mockingbird
To Kill A Mockingbird
Mocking Birds
A mockingbird is a bird that sings sweet melodies , do not nest in anybodies corncribsThese lines from Chapter 10 are the source of the novel’s title and introduce one of the key metaphors of the book: the idea of “mockingbirds” as good, innocent people who are destroyed by evil. Boo Radley, for instance, is like a mockingbird—just as mockingbirds do not harm people but only “sing their hearts out for us,” Boo does not harm anyone; instead, he leaves Jem and Scout presents, covers Scout with a blanket during the fire, and eventually saves the children from Bob Ewell. Despite the pureness of his heart, however, Boo has been damaged by an abusive father. The connection between songbirds and innocents is made explicitly several times in the book: in Chapter 25, Mr. Underwood likens Tom Robinson’s death to “the senseless slaughter of songbirds by hunters and children”; in Chapter 30, Scout tells Atticus that hurting Boo Radley would be “sort of like shootin’ a mockingbird.” The moral imperative to protect the vulnerable governs Atticus’s decision to take Tom’s case, just as it leads Jem to protect the roly-poly bug from Scout’s handp
FROM SPARKNOTES.com
Mocking Birds
A mockingbird is a bird that sings sweet melodies , do not nest in anybodies corncribsThese lines from Chapter 10 are the source of the novel’s title and introduce one of the key metaphors of the book: the idea of “mockingbirds” as good, innocent people who are destroyed by evil. Boo Radley, for instance, is like a mockingbird—just as mockingbirds do not harm people but only “sing their hearts out for us,” Boo does not harm anyone; instead, he leaves Jem and Scout presents, covers Scout with a blanket during the fire, and eventually saves the children from Bob Ewell. Despite the pureness of his heart, however, Boo has been damaged by an abusive father. The connection between songbirds and innocents is made explicitly several times in the book: in Chapter 25, Mr. Underwood likens Tom Robinson’s death to “the senseless slaughter of songbirds by hunters and children”; in Chapter 30, Scout tells Atticus that hurting Boo Radley would be “sort of like shootin’ a mockingbird.” The moral imperative to protect the vulnerable governs Atticus’s decision to take Tom’s case, just as it leads Jem to protect the roly-poly bug from Scout’s handp
FROM SPARKNOTES.com
Literature, Odale's Choice
Literature Syllabus
1. Disception- Disguise/ Lies/ Trickery
- Disguise : horten, lucen, tran
- Lies : tran, pet
- Trickery : Lord, etc. induction
2. Analyze major characters
3. Bianca’s Suitors / Lucentio – courtship, wooing, wedding ,marriage
4. Kat / Petruchio – courtship. Marriage
5. Major themes – Act 2/3/5 scene 2 – Love/ Loyalty
6. Parenting/ Family/ Child and sibling
7. Servants and Master
ODALES CHOICE
1. What is the cause of o’s choice?
2. How does she come to this choice?
3. What are consequences?
4. How did it affect other people in the book?
5. Major Characters : Odale, Creon, Leicho : Look at their relationship, character strength and weakness
6. Themes : Commitment to oneself and bravery
7. What role does the chorus play in the drama?
TKAM
1. Major characters- how do they develop? Scout, Jem, Atticus, Cal*
2. Themes : Family Relationship : The finches
3. Theme : Justice : Tom R. vs. the maycomb community
4. Theme : Revenge : Maycomb citizen and Bob
5. Life Lesson’s learned : what are they, outcome, response
The major characters in the book to kill a mockingbird are Scout, Jem and Atticus. Scout starts the book as an innocent 5 year old not yet weary of the evils of the world. Thorough the book she is exposed to injustice, prejudice and the likes but is lucky to have her father Atticus as her guide. At the beginning of the book, scout plays many plays with her brother Jem andher firend Dill and unknowingly is a victim of evil/ prejudice when their child hood superstition comes into play…however this can be attributed to innocent curiosity as the children do not know much about boo radley besides the rumours that they hear. By end of book scout knows about hypocrisy esp. of Ms. Gates, the unfairnees of the trial and the mean ness of the white community (dolphus Raymond)
The cause of Odale’s choice is her brothers death. Because Tawia is killed and he is defiled she must come the the decision, of obeying her Gods or obeying mans law. The way to obey her god’s laws are to give her brother a proper burial. Odale comes to this choice after seeing her brothers body. Odale didn’t see the point of living if her brother still suffered. The consequences of this choice was ultimately death, but then got changed to exile and then back again to death. Odale’s choice affected other people in the book in various ways. OFr example, the soldier Musa knew that she must bury Tawia to lift the curse off of her family and so he tried to protect her by defending her and lying. It affects Odale in that she grows and learns a very important lesson – to obey God’s laws rather than man. It affectsL eicho in that leicho realizes how much she loves her sister and Leicho realizes that she does not follow or do what is rght but rather succumbs to tyranny. It mostly affected Creon however as Creon is defied for probably one of the first times in his dictatorship. He is shocked at such a adisplay of bravery and feels clearly threatened by it.
Major Characters :
Odale : Odale is the heroine of the book Odale’s Choice and is thewin of her sister Leicho and the neice of the ruler Creon. Odales’ real name is Akwele.Odale was very outspoken. She was a free-spirit at the beginning of the book while she was dancing in the festivities but quicky transforms into a grave and seriousl character after hearing the news of her brother’s death. Odale was more impulsive and passionate about things, following her heart and her intuition about the major choices she has to make in the books .She is very courageous and did not fear death as much as the average person would, it was because of this that she made a great lead in the play and it was that she couldn’t be forced into submission of Creon’s tyranny. Because all of his threats meant nothing to her as she knew that the gods could unleash whatever Croen threatened her with, tenfold. Odale loved her sister very much and it was because of this that she did not force her to join the right side but instead protected her. She knew Leicho wouldn’t have the guts to do what was right in burying the body so she tricked Leicho into going home and staying safe while she took care of the matter. Odale knew that she had to bury her brother to : remove the curse, let his soul rest in peace and put her soul at ease. Odale’s real strength of character is not only shown in her bodl desicisons but her avid compassion for others. WE see this displayed when at the end of the book, she prays for her main oppressor, Creon –that he become more kind. Even when he sentences her to death she prays for him and Leicho, instead of thinking about herself. She is also polite to Creon even if she doesn’t believe in his law. However she is not as submissive to him as Leicho is and is not afraid to defy him. Odale is a martyr in a sense and is self-sacrificial as we see her in the end of the book, accepting the death for herself, Tawia and everyone else to lift the curse that has come upon them.
Creon : Creon was the leader of the nation in Odale’s Choice. He was the “father” of Leicho and Odale as since their father had died/ or had gone away, as the oldest and strong male figure in the family, he had to support the remaingin wife and children. Creon is notorious for being a harsh rule who is hard to please and demanding, evidence of this is the quote said by one of the soldiers “nobody from this place sweep dem house de way dis man want am sweep”. Creon kills his own nephew Tawia because Tawia clearly opposed him and was possibly a threat to Creons rule. Odae thinks that he is a tyrant and very cruel. The people of the land abhorred him. The play is laced with hypocrisy and many of his soldier and servants whom are the closest to him never pass up the chance to complain about him behind his back. Creon hasn’t ever had any children of his own and most people attritue this to his hard and cold ways. Evidence of this is scorning his own nephew and withing a horrible death on him and bad fourtune on his “carcass”. Creon was power-hungry and could be said to tear down anyone or thing that got in the way of his rulership. Creon killed both his nephew and his neice because they both did not comform to his ways. Creon however does have a heart, arguably as it is either a heart or just his plain pride that causes him to reduce the death sentence on Odale to exile and to give her many excuses to lie to him so that she wouldn’t have to die. Either way, Creon is the cause of the curse on the land as his awful rulership and his his disgrace of Tawia corpse bring misfortune on the land. Creon was an autocratic leader of the country, He wasn’t concernend about what anyone else said. Creon could be described as heartless as he left his nephews corpse to rot. He could be described as Ruthless as he didn’t care about the tired soldier having to keep watch ovrer a lifeless body, on a farway hillside, in the cold night, and that the corpse was smelly. And he was very inconsiderate for this sma ereason. The soldier express their disgust for him, as they believe that nothing could have been so bad to not ony kill his child but disgrace the body too. Creon is also very illtempered and illmanneerd and impatient with the natives and their language. Over all Creon is a horrible leader who is the antagonist of the book.
Leicho : Lecicho is the twin sister of Odale and her real name s awkukor”. Leicho ins in a sense odale’s other half – her exact opposite. While most of Odale’s actions are goverened by bravery, most of Leichos are laced with cowardliness. Leicho doesn’t want to talk badly of Creon even though he is a bad leader. Leicho knew exactly where Creon’s body was and how is had been left, yet she did not eant to tell Odale because she knew that Odale would do something about it and put herself in danger. Leichos’ actions were governed by one of two things – love for her sister or plain cowardliness. Leicho discouraged Odale from seeing the body and when Odale had seen it Leicho wanted both of them to hightail it back to their house to avoid getting into trouble. Leicho was Creon’s ideal subject, she was a mindless follower of his rule and with the threat of death she would so anything he decreed or said. Leicho dearly loved her sister but her love onlywent as far as Creon’s law. Leicho knew that it was a curse to follow Creon and his people and not bury the body but she did not want Uncle angry or to die.
Odale’s Choice is to first, defy the ruler at the time (by buring her brothers body) and secondly to refuse the mercy he extends to her at the end of the play .
Themes : Commitment to Oneself
The theme commitment to oneself is intertwined with bravery and present in the play Odale’s choice. There were two main characters who showed this theme in a positive light who were : Tawia, Odale’s late brother and Odale. We do not know much of Tawia but we are sure that he deifed Creon in some way and anyone who defied Creon must have been doing good as Creons practices and was were wicked and evil . Tawia stood up for what was right and fought for it, evidence of this in the play is the statement “ Though the boy look soft, he tail like a scorpion o!” Tawia “bit the same hand that feed am” and turned against Creon and for this was put to death. Odale was a spitting image of Tawia and followed in his footsteps. Odale remaind true to herself and would not be controlled by Creon’s laws. She had to take care of her brother and bury him as even if he “Wasn’t [Creon’s] nephew , he was Odale’s brother”. Both Odale and Tawia are brave in disobeying Creon. Odale esp. knew that she must follow the gods laws rather than man’s . Odale was committed to herself and sacrificed herself so that the curse may be lifted and brother’s body may rest in peace. Odale knew what was right even when everyone else didn’t or didn’t choose to do it.
What role does the mourning women’s chant play in the story?
“O the curse of the gods is upon us
The curse of the gods is upon us
Our household is ruined
Our cooking places destroyed…
Our hearths and holy places destroyed”
Ummm….it tells us about the curse and what the curse has done. It gives us insight as to what the people were going through and what worse things would happen if this curse was not lifted. The repetition in the chant tells us that the curse of the gods us indeed upon them and their houses are destroyed. Or something is….
1. Disception- Disguise/ Lies/ Trickery
- Disguise : horten, lucen, tran
- Lies : tran, pet
- Trickery : Lord, etc. induction
2. Analyze major characters
3. Bianca’s Suitors / Lucentio – courtship, wooing, wedding ,marriage
4. Kat / Petruchio – courtship. Marriage
5. Major themes – Act 2/3/5 scene 2 – Love/ Loyalty
6. Parenting/ Family/ Child and sibling
7. Servants and Master
ODALES CHOICE
1. What is the cause of o’s choice?
2. How does she come to this choice?
3. What are consequences?
4. How did it affect other people in the book?
5. Major Characters : Odale, Creon, Leicho : Look at their relationship, character strength and weakness
6. Themes : Commitment to oneself and bravery
7. What role does the chorus play in the drama?
TKAM
1. Major characters- how do they develop? Scout, Jem, Atticus, Cal*
2. Themes : Family Relationship : The finches
3. Theme : Justice : Tom R. vs. the maycomb community
4. Theme : Revenge : Maycomb citizen and Bob
5. Life Lesson’s learned : what are they, outcome, response
The major characters in the book to kill a mockingbird are Scout, Jem and Atticus. Scout starts the book as an innocent 5 year old not yet weary of the evils of the world. Thorough the book she is exposed to injustice, prejudice and the likes but is lucky to have her father Atticus as her guide. At the beginning of the book, scout plays many plays with her brother Jem andher firend Dill and unknowingly is a victim of evil/ prejudice when their child hood superstition comes into play…however this can be attributed to innocent curiosity as the children do not know much about boo radley besides the rumours that they hear. By end of book scout knows about hypocrisy esp. of Ms. Gates, the unfairnees of the trial and the mean ness of the white community (dolphus Raymond)
The cause of Odale’s choice is her brothers death. Because Tawia is killed and he is defiled she must come the the decision, of obeying her Gods or obeying mans law. The way to obey her god’s laws are to give her brother a proper burial. Odale comes to this choice after seeing her brothers body. Odale didn’t see the point of living if her brother still suffered. The consequences of this choice was ultimately death, but then got changed to exile and then back again to death. Odale’s choice affected other people in the book in various ways. OFr example, the soldier Musa knew that she must bury Tawia to lift the curse off of her family and so he tried to protect her by defending her and lying. It affects Odale in that she grows and learns a very important lesson – to obey God’s laws rather than man. It affectsL eicho in that leicho realizes how much she loves her sister and Leicho realizes that she does not follow or do what is rght but rather succumbs to tyranny. It mostly affected Creon however as Creon is defied for probably one of the first times in his dictatorship. He is shocked at such a adisplay of bravery and feels clearly threatened by it.
Major Characters :
Odale : Odale is the heroine of the book Odale’s Choice and is thewin of her sister Leicho and the neice of the ruler Creon. Odales’ real name is Akwele.Odale was very outspoken. She was a free-spirit at the beginning of the book while she was dancing in the festivities but quicky transforms into a grave and seriousl character after hearing the news of her brother’s death. Odale was more impulsive and passionate about things, following her heart and her intuition about the major choices she has to make in the books .She is very courageous and did not fear death as much as the average person would, it was because of this that she made a great lead in the play and it was that she couldn’t be forced into submission of Creon’s tyranny. Because all of his threats meant nothing to her as she knew that the gods could unleash whatever Croen threatened her with, tenfold. Odale loved her sister very much and it was because of this that she did not force her to join the right side but instead protected her. She knew Leicho wouldn’t have the guts to do what was right in burying the body so she tricked Leicho into going home and staying safe while she took care of the matter. Odale knew that she had to bury her brother to : remove the curse, let his soul rest in peace and put her soul at ease. Odale’s real strength of character is not only shown in her bodl desicisons but her avid compassion for others. WE see this displayed when at the end of the book, she prays for her main oppressor, Creon –that he become more kind. Even when he sentences her to death she prays for him and Leicho, instead of thinking about herself. She is also polite to Creon even if she doesn’t believe in his law. However she is not as submissive to him as Leicho is and is not afraid to defy him. Odale is a martyr in a sense and is self-sacrificial as we see her in the end of the book, accepting the death for herself, Tawia and everyone else to lift the curse that has come upon them.
Creon : Creon was the leader of the nation in Odale’s Choice. He was the “father” of Leicho and Odale as since their father had died/ or had gone away, as the oldest and strong male figure in the family, he had to support the remaingin wife and children. Creon is notorious for being a harsh rule who is hard to please and demanding, evidence of this is the quote said by one of the soldiers “nobody from this place sweep dem house de way dis man want am sweep”. Creon kills his own nephew Tawia because Tawia clearly opposed him and was possibly a threat to Creons rule. Odae thinks that he is a tyrant and very cruel. The people of the land abhorred him. The play is laced with hypocrisy and many of his soldier and servants whom are the closest to him never pass up the chance to complain about him behind his back. Creon hasn’t ever had any children of his own and most people attritue this to his hard and cold ways. Evidence of this is scorning his own nephew and withing a horrible death on him and bad fourtune on his “carcass”. Creon was power-hungry and could be said to tear down anyone or thing that got in the way of his rulership. Creon killed both his nephew and his neice because they both did not comform to his ways. Creon however does have a heart, arguably as it is either a heart or just his plain pride that causes him to reduce the death sentence on Odale to exile and to give her many excuses to lie to him so that she wouldn’t have to die. Either way, Creon is the cause of the curse on the land as his awful rulership and his his disgrace of Tawia corpse bring misfortune on the land. Creon was an autocratic leader of the country, He wasn’t concernend about what anyone else said. Creon could be described as heartless as he left his nephews corpse to rot. He could be described as Ruthless as he didn’t care about the tired soldier having to keep watch ovrer a lifeless body, on a farway hillside, in the cold night, and that the corpse was smelly. And he was very inconsiderate for this sma ereason. The soldier express their disgust for him, as they believe that nothing could have been so bad to not ony kill his child but disgrace the body too. Creon is also very illtempered and illmanneerd and impatient with the natives and their language. Over all Creon is a horrible leader who is the antagonist of the book.
Leicho : Lecicho is the twin sister of Odale and her real name s awkukor”. Leicho ins in a sense odale’s other half – her exact opposite. While most of Odale’s actions are goverened by bravery, most of Leichos are laced with cowardliness. Leicho doesn’t want to talk badly of Creon even though he is a bad leader. Leicho knew exactly where Creon’s body was and how is had been left, yet she did not eant to tell Odale because she knew that Odale would do something about it and put herself in danger. Leichos’ actions were governed by one of two things – love for her sister or plain cowardliness. Leicho discouraged Odale from seeing the body and when Odale had seen it Leicho wanted both of them to hightail it back to their house to avoid getting into trouble. Leicho was Creon’s ideal subject, she was a mindless follower of his rule and with the threat of death she would so anything he decreed or said. Leicho dearly loved her sister but her love onlywent as far as Creon’s law. Leicho knew that it was a curse to follow Creon and his people and not bury the body but she did not want Uncle angry or to die.
Odale’s Choice is to first, defy the ruler at the time (by buring her brothers body) and secondly to refuse the mercy he extends to her at the end of the play .
Themes : Commitment to Oneself
The theme commitment to oneself is intertwined with bravery and present in the play Odale’s choice. There were two main characters who showed this theme in a positive light who were : Tawia, Odale’s late brother and Odale. We do not know much of Tawia but we are sure that he deifed Creon in some way and anyone who defied Creon must have been doing good as Creons practices and was were wicked and evil . Tawia stood up for what was right and fought for it, evidence of this in the play is the statement “ Though the boy look soft, he tail like a scorpion o!” Tawia “bit the same hand that feed am” and turned against Creon and for this was put to death. Odale was a spitting image of Tawia and followed in his footsteps. Odale remaind true to herself and would not be controlled by Creon’s laws. She had to take care of her brother and bury him as even if he “Wasn’t [Creon’s] nephew , he was Odale’s brother”. Both Odale and Tawia are brave in disobeying Creon. Odale esp. knew that she must follow the gods laws rather than man’s . Odale was committed to herself and sacrificed herself so that the curse may be lifted and brother’s body may rest in peace. Odale knew what was right even when everyone else didn’t or didn’t choose to do it.
What role does the mourning women’s chant play in the story?
“O the curse of the gods is upon us
The curse of the gods is upon us
Our household is ruined
Our cooking places destroyed…
Our hearths and holy places destroyed”
Ummm….it tells us about the curse and what the curse has done. It gives us insight as to what the people were going through and what worse things would happen if this curse was not lifted. The repetition in the chant tells us that the curse of the gods us indeed upon them and their houses are destroyed. Or something is….
Blood. Blood. Blood
a) List the constituents of blood and their purposes.
Plasma : One of the main purposes of plasma is to dissolve the food substances and hormones that the body needs in it. Plasma also suspends the blood cells for easy transportation around the body. Plasma also acts as a reservoir that can either replenish insufficient water or absorb excess water from tissues. Plasma also prevents blood vessels from collapsing and clogging and helps maintain blood pressure and circulation throughout the body simply by filling blood vessels and flowing through them continuously.
Red Blood Cells : Red Blood have some of the most basic purposes of all the blood components. They carry oxygen from the heart to the tissues of the body via the blood stream. They also carry carbon dioxide (Waste) away from the tissues of the body and back to the heart. Red blood cells also contain hemoglobin, which helps it to do this.
White Blood Cells : White Blood cells are primarily responsible for protecting the body against infection. They do this by surrounding the germs and digesting them. White blood cells also produce antibodies that help with its function.
Platelets : Platelets are small particles whose primary function is to help your blood to clot. They gather at the bleeding site and gather over the open blood vessel and they help to seal it.
b) List 5 purposes of the blood.
1. Blood delivers oxygen to cells
2. Blood takes food and essential nutrients around the body.
3. Blood takes waste away from cells, (that’s gotten rid of by the kidneys or lungs)
4. Blood transports heat around the body.
5. Blood helps to fight infections, (by use of components in it)
Plasma : One of the main purposes of plasma is to dissolve the food substances and hormones that the body needs in it. Plasma also suspends the blood cells for easy transportation around the body. Plasma also acts as a reservoir that can either replenish insufficient water or absorb excess water from tissues. Plasma also prevents blood vessels from collapsing and clogging and helps maintain blood pressure and circulation throughout the body simply by filling blood vessels and flowing through them continuously.
Red Blood Cells : Red Blood have some of the most basic purposes of all the blood components. They carry oxygen from the heart to the tissues of the body via the blood stream. They also carry carbon dioxide (Waste) away from the tissues of the body and back to the heart. Red blood cells also contain hemoglobin, which helps it to do this.
White Blood Cells : White Blood cells are primarily responsible for protecting the body against infection. They do this by surrounding the germs and digesting them. White blood cells also produce antibodies that help with its function.
Platelets : Platelets are small particles whose primary function is to help your blood to clot. They gather at the bleeding site and gather over the open blood vessel and they help to seal it.
b) List 5 purposes of the blood.
1. Blood delivers oxygen to cells
2. Blood takes food and essential nutrients around the body.
3. Blood takes waste away from cells, (that’s gotten rid of by the kidneys or lungs)
4. Blood transports heat around the body.
5. Blood helps to fight infections, (by use of components in it)
Pivots, Fulcrum etc.
Homework
Using the three classes of levers give two examples of each identifying the relative position of the fulcrum, load and effort. Pictures must be present for the examples.
First Class Levers
First class levers are those levers with the pivot (fulcrum) between the load and the effort. Some examples are :
Pliers
In pliers, the fulcrum/pivot is in the middle, in the form of a screw, the load is put between the two pinchers and the effort is applied at the handle.
Scissors
In scissors, the fulcrum is the screw in the middle, the effort is applied at the handles and the load is cut by the cutting ends of the scissors.
Second Class Levers
A second class lever is a lever that has the load is between the fulcrum and the effort. Some examples are :
Wheelbarrow
In the wheelbarrow, the load is carried in the middle between the fulcrum and the effort. In a wheelbarrow the load is carried in the “bed”, the pivot is in the wheel and the effort is applied to the handles.
Door
In a door the load is the actual door (wood), the pivot is the door hinge and the effort is applied to the handle.
Third Class Levers
Levers in this class have the effort in the middle between the fulcrum and load.
Tongs
In the tong, the effort is applied in the middle portion, the fulcrum is the closed end and the load is held between the pinchers.
Staple Remover
In the staple remover, the effort is applied in the middle part, the pivot is at the rounded end and the load (the staple) is gripped with the claws.
Using the three classes of levers give two examples of each identifying the relative position of the fulcrum, load and effort. Pictures must be present for the examples.
First Class Levers
First class levers are those levers with the pivot (fulcrum) between the load and the effort. Some examples are :
Pliers
In pliers, the fulcrum/pivot is in the middle, in the form of a screw, the load is put between the two pinchers and the effort is applied at the handle.
Scissors
In scissors, the fulcrum is the screw in the middle, the effort is applied at the handles and the load is cut by the cutting ends of the scissors.
Second Class Levers
A second class lever is a lever that has the load is between the fulcrum and the effort. Some examples are :
Wheelbarrow
In the wheelbarrow, the load is carried in the middle between the fulcrum and the effort. In a wheelbarrow the load is carried in the “bed”, the pivot is in the wheel and the effort is applied to the handles.
Door
In a door the load is the actual door (wood), the pivot is the door hinge and the effort is applied to the handle.
Third Class Levers
Levers in this class have the effort in the middle between the fulcrum and load.
Tongs
In the tong, the effort is applied in the middle portion, the fulcrum is the closed end and the load is held between the pinchers.
Staple Remover
In the staple remover, the effort is applied in the middle part, the pivot is at the rounded end and the load (the staple) is gripped with the claws.
Conduction, Convection and Radiation
Homework
1) Identify one way in which conduction, convection and radiation are used in the community and industry.
Conduction
An example of conduction in communities is in stoves. When the fire is generated, conducting is used in the metal gauzes on top top of the stove. They are metal so that they will heat quicker and then in turn display conduction again when they heat up the bottom of the metal pot cooking the food.
An example of conduction in industries is electrical wires. The heat/electricity will move through the metal easily because it is a conductor of heat and quickly get to where it needs to go. The rubber surrounding it will not take any of the heat because it is not a conductor.
Convection
An example of convection in industries is a boiler. Conventional boilers burn fuel in a combustion chamber surrounded by a water jacket. This heats the water, which is then circulated around the heating system. Unfortunately, not all the heat produced by the burning fuel is used to heat the water.
Boilers are also used in communitites and households but a more domestic version is used. Another example of convection in communities is in refridgerators. Convection is used in refridgerators to cool them down. Heat is carried away into the plastic around the fridge there fore the back of fridges are always warm.
Radiation
An example of radiation as used in the industry is X-rays. X-rays are a type of radiation. Bones are denser than skin so whenever X-rays are done, bones and other dense materials cast shadows that can be detected on photographic film. It is a fast and easy method for doctors to see patients bones and help them.
An example of radiation in the community is a solar water heater. They use the sun to heat either water or a water transfer fluid in collectors. Hot water systems use a pump to circulate portable water from the water storage tank through one or more collectors and back to the tank. The most common collectors are flat plate collectors. This is a rectangular box with a transparent cover, installed on a building.
2) Give three reasons why an insulated flask can be used to keep things hot and/or cold.
- They are sealed at the edges by melting the edges together. The air is removed from the spaces between the two to produce a vacuum. This vacuum slows down the movement of heat by convection.
– There is a glass bottle placed over the inner compartment. This reflects heat radiation and lessens the loss of heat.
- A rubber or cork seal also prevents heat loss and gain. Also, all materials used in the flask are poor conductors of heat.
1) Identify one way in which conduction, convection and radiation are used in the community and industry.
Conduction
An example of conduction in communities is in stoves. When the fire is generated, conducting is used in the metal gauzes on top top of the stove. They are metal so that they will heat quicker and then in turn display conduction again when they heat up the bottom of the metal pot cooking the food.
An example of conduction in industries is electrical wires. The heat/electricity will move through the metal easily because it is a conductor of heat and quickly get to where it needs to go. The rubber surrounding it will not take any of the heat because it is not a conductor.
Convection
An example of convection in industries is a boiler. Conventional boilers burn fuel in a combustion chamber surrounded by a water jacket. This heats the water, which is then circulated around the heating system. Unfortunately, not all the heat produced by the burning fuel is used to heat the water.
Boilers are also used in communitites and households but a more domestic version is used. Another example of convection in communities is in refridgerators. Convection is used in refridgerators to cool them down. Heat is carried away into the plastic around the fridge there fore the back of fridges are always warm.
Radiation
An example of radiation as used in the industry is X-rays. X-rays are a type of radiation. Bones are denser than skin so whenever X-rays are done, bones and other dense materials cast shadows that can be detected on photographic film. It is a fast and easy method for doctors to see patients bones and help them.
An example of radiation in the community is a solar water heater. They use the sun to heat either water or a water transfer fluid in collectors. Hot water systems use a pump to circulate portable water from the water storage tank through one or more collectors and back to the tank. The most common collectors are flat plate collectors. This is a rectangular box with a transparent cover, installed on a building.
2) Give three reasons why an insulated flask can be used to keep things hot and/or cold.
- They are sealed at the edges by melting the edges together. The air is removed from the spaces between the two to produce a vacuum. This vacuum slows down the movement of heat by convection.
– There is a glass bottle placed over the inner compartment. This reflects heat radiation and lessens the loss of heat.
- A rubber or cork seal also prevents heat loss and gain. Also, all materials used in the flask are poor conductors of heat.
Batteries and the like
1. State why batteries should not be dumped carelessly.
- A battery is made of layers of poisonous chemicals inside a metal “can”. When batteries are disposed of carelessly, the chemicals will leak out and cause harm. These chemicals more often than not seep into the ground in these cases and cause land pollution.
2. Explain why :
a) Some materials carry electricity while others don’t
- In many materials, the electrons are tightly bound to the atoms. Wood, glass, plastic, ceramic, air, cotton etc. are all materials that do not carry electricity well. This is because the electrons don't. These materials are insulators. However, most metals have electrons that can detach from their atoms and move around, called free electrons. Gold, silver, copper, aluminum, iron, etc., all have free electrons. The loose electrons make it easy for electricity to flow through these materials, so they are known as conductors.
b) You see lightning in a storm before you hear thunder.
- The flash of a lightning strike and the resulting thunder occur at roughly the same time. However, light travels at 186,000 miles in a second, almost a million times the speed of sound. Sound travels at the slower speed of one fifth of a mile in the same time. So, therefore the flash of lightning is seen before the thunder is heard.
c) A light switch has to be turned on before the light comes on
- A light switch operates a switch in a circuit. When the light switch is turned on, the switch goes down and completes the circuit, allowing electricity to flow through it. When the light switch is not switched on, the circuit is not complete and the light will not work.
- A battery is made of layers of poisonous chemicals inside a metal “can”. When batteries are disposed of carelessly, the chemicals will leak out and cause harm. These chemicals more often than not seep into the ground in these cases and cause land pollution.
2. Explain why :
a) Some materials carry electricity while others don’t
- In many materials, the electrons are tightly bound to the atoms. Wood, glass, plastic, ceramic, air, cotton etc. are all materials that do not carry electricity well. This is because the electrons don't. These materials are insulators. However, most metals have electrons that can detach from their atoms and move around, called free electrons. Gold, silver, copper, aluminum, iron, etc., all have free electrons. The loose electrons make it easy for electricity to flow through these materials, so they are known as conductors.
b) You see lightning in a storm before you hear thunder.
- The flash of a lightning strike and the resulting thunder occur at roughly the same time. However, light travels at 186,000 miles in a second, almost a million times the speed of sound. Sound travels at the slower speed of one fifth of a mile in the same time. So, therefore the flash of lightning is seen before the thunder is heard.
c) A light switch has to be turned on before the light comes on
- A light switch operates a switch in a circuit. When the light switch is turned on, the switch goes down and completes the circuit, allowing electricity to flow through it. When the light switch is not switched on, the circuit is not complete and the light will not work.
Loudspeakers and Electromagnets
Science Homework
Research the use of electromagnets in a loudspeaker.
Loudspeaker
Diagram :
The loudspeakers in your radio, TV or stereo system use varying electric current through an electromagnet to create sound. The electric current varies at a fast rate, causing the strength of the magnetic field to vary. This results in moving the loudspeaker membrane or cone back and forth rapidly, resulting in sound and even music.
Take a look at a loudspeaker and see the coil of wire and electromagnet in its back area. Some loudspeakers use a solenoid instead of an electromagnet.
These first loudspeakers used electromagnets because large, powerful permanent magnets were not freely available at reasonable cost. The coil of the electromagnet is called a field coil and is energized by direct current through a second pair of terminals. This winding usually served a dual role, acting also as a choke coil filtering the power supply of the amplifier which the loudspeaker was connected to.
Sites Used :
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/electromagnetic_devices.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker
Research the use of electromagnets in a loudspeaker.
Loudspeaker
Diagram :
The loudspeakers in your radio, TV or stereo system use varying electric current through an electromagnet to create sound. The electric current varies at a fast rate, causing the strength of the magnetic field to vary. This results in moving the loudspeaker membrane or cone back and forth rapidly, resulting in sound and even music.
Take a look at a loudspeaker and see the coil of wire and electromagnet in its back area. Some loudspeakers use a solenoid instead of an electromagnet.
These first loudspeakers used electromagnets because large, powerful permanent magnets were not freely available at reasonable cost. The coil of the electromagnet is called a field coil and is energized by direct current through a second pair of terminals. This winding usually served a dual role, acting also as a choke coil filtering the power supply of the amplifier which the loudspeaker was connected to.
Sites Used :
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/electromagnetic_devices.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker
The Body Organs
Topic: The Human Body
Sub-topic: Organ Systems
1. a) State what would happen if an organ malfunctioned.
- If an organ malfunctions, the entire organ system would be affected. This is so because, each organ is needed to carry out a several functions and if it does not, disrupts the natural process of the organ system which can lead to serious complications.
1. b) Give one example of a disease due to organ malfunction and describe the symptoms.
-A disease due to organ malfunction is : Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease (AIED), it is an inflammatory condition of the inner ear that occurs when the body’s immune system attacks cells in the inner ear mistaken for a virus or bacteria. The symptoms are : - hearing loss in one ear progressing rapidly to the second ear.
- - patients may feel “fullness” in the ear and experience vertigo
- - experiencing a ringing, roaring or hissing in one ear.
-
*see picture on back page*
2. a) If some poison is poured at the root of a plant to stop the root from functioning, what system might it affect?
- This might affect the root system.
2. b) If this system malfunctions, will it affect the plant? Explain.
- If the root system malfunctions it will affect the plant because the root system is the plant’s main way of obtaining nutrients (along with leaves that absorb the nutrients from sunlight). If the plant doesn’t have these essential nutrients it will die.
Conclusion :
3. a) Does the malfunctioning of an organ affect the system it belongs to?
- Yes, the malfunctioning of an organ affects the organ system that it belongs to.
3 b) Does it affect the organism?
- Yes it does affect the organism (because if the systems of the organism do not work then it can lead to health problems or possibly death.)
Sub-topic: Organ Systems
1. a) State what would happen if an organ malfunctioned.
- If an organ malfunctions, the entire organ system would be affected. This is so because, each organ is needed to carry out a several functions and if it does not, disrupts the natural process of the organ system which can lead to serious complications.
1. b) Give one example of a disease due to organ malfunction and describe the symptoms.
-A disease due to organ malfunction is : Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease (AIED), it is an inflammatory condition of the inner ear that occurs when the body’s immune system attacks cells in the inner ear mistaken for a virus or bacteria. The symptoms are : - hearing loss in one ear progressing rapidly to the second ear.
- - patients may feel “fullness” in the ear and experience vertigo
- - experiencing a ringing, roaring or hissing in one ear.
-
*see picture on back page*
2. a) If some poison is poured at the root of a plant to stop the root from functioning, what system might it affect?
- This might affect the root system.
2. b) If this system malfunctions, will it affect the plant? Explain.
- If the root system malfunctions it will affect the plant because the root system is the plant’s main way of obtaining nutrients (along with leaves that absorb the nutrients from sunlight). If the plant doesn’t have these essential nutrients it will die.
Conclusion :
3. a) Does the malfunctioning of an organ affect the system it belongs to?
- Yes, the malfunctioning of an organ affects the organ system that it belongs to.
3 b) Does it affect the organism?
- Yes it does affect the organism (because if the systems of the organism do not work then it can lead to health problems or possibly death.)
Robert Hooke and the Microscope
Robert Hooke on the Microscope.
Robert Hooke was a English physicist. In 1665 he looked at a silver of cork through a microscope lense and noticed some “pores” or “cells” in it.
In 1665, the English physicist Robert Hooke looked at a sliver of cork through a microscope lens and noticed some "pores" or "cells" in it. Robert Hooke believed the cells had served as containers for the "noble juices" or "fibrous threads" of the once-living cork tree. He thought these cells existed only in plants, since he and his scientific contemporaries had observed the structures only in plant material.
Robert Hooke wrote Micrographia, the first book describing observations made through a microscope. The drawing to the top left was created by Hooke. Hooke was the first person to use the word "cell" to identify microscopic structures when he was describing cork. Hooke also wrote Hooke's Law -- a law of elasticity for solid bodies.
-insert pic of microscope-
A telescope must gather large amounts of light from a dim, distant object; therefore, it needs a large objective lens to gather as much light as possible and bring it to a bright focus. Because the objective lens is large, it brings the image of the object to a focus at some distance away, which is why telescopes are much longer than microscopes. The eyepiece of the telescope then magnifies that image as it brings it to your eye.
1. Ocular lens or eyepiece: ours are 10x magnification. The scopes we will use are monocular (one eyepiece only.)
2. Body tube: contains mirrors and prisms which direct the image to the ocular lens.
3. Nosepiece: holds the objective lenses, rotates, note the positive stops for each lens.
4. Objective lenses: usually 3-4 on our scopes, 4x, 10x, 43x, 100x oil immersion (red banding). Total magnification = ocular power x objective power.
5. Stage: platform on which slides are mounted for viewing; some scopes have mechanical stages. Learn how to clip the slide in position properly.
6. Diaphragm: the diaphragm controls the amount of light which passes to the specimen and can drastically affect the focus of the image. LEARN TO USE THE DIAPHRAGM AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE. MOST PROBLEMS YOU WILL HAVE FOCUSING WILL BE DUE TO INCORRECT ADJUSTMENT OF LIGHT.
We have two types:
iris diaphragm: Look for a lever just under the stage near the front.
dial type: Just below the stage is a rotating dial having different size apertures (holes); this type is useful for creating a pseudo dark field effect.
7. Focusing knobs: Located on side of microscope; outermost is the fine focus and innermost is the coarse focus. 8. Light source: our scopes have built in light sources. The pushbutton switch is located (most often) behind the light lens on the base.
Robert Hooke was a English physicist. In 1665 he looked at a silver of cork through a microscope lense and noticed some “pores” or “cells” in it.
In 1665, the English physicist Robert Hooke looked at a sliver of cork through a microscope lens and noticed some "pores" or "cells" in it. Robert Hooke believed the cells had served as containers for the "noble juices" or "fibrous threads" of the once-living cork tree. He thought these cells existed only in plants, since he and his scientific contemporaries had observed the structures only in plant material.
Robert Hooke wrote Micrographia, the first book describing observations made through a microscope. The drawing to the top left was created by Hooke. Hooke was the first person to use the word "cell" to identify microscopic structures when he was describing cork. Hooke also wrote Hooke's Law -- a law of elasticity for solid bodies.
-insert pic of microscope-
A telescope must gather large amounts of light from a dim, distant object; therefore, it needs a large objective lens to gather as much light as possible and bring it to a bright focus. Because the objective lens is large, it brings the image of the object to a focus at some distance away, which is why telescopes are much longer than microscopes. The eyepiece of the telescope then magnifies that image as it brings it to your eye.
1. Ocular lens or eyepiece: ours are 10x magnification. The scopes we will use are monocular (one eyepiece only.)
2. Body tube: contains mirrors and prisms which direct the image to the ocular lens.
3. Nosepiece: holds the objective lenses, rotates, note the positive stops for each lens.
4. Objective lenses: usually 3-4 on our scopes, 4x, 10x, 43x, 100x oil immersion (red banding). Total magnification = ocular power x objective power.
5. Stage: platform on which slides are mounted for viewing; some scopes have mechanical stages. Learn how to clip the slide in position properly.
6. Diaphragm: the diaphragm controls the amount of light which passes to the specimen and can drastically affect the focus of the image. LEARN TO USE THE DIAPHRAGM AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE. MOST PROBLEMS YOU WILL HAVE FOCUSING WILL BE DUE TO INCORRECT ADJUSTMENT OF LIGHT.
We have two types:
iris diaphragm: Look for a lever just under the stage near the front.
dial type: Just below the stage is a rotating dial having different size apertures (holes); this type is useful for creating a pseudo dark field effect.
7. Focusing knobs: Located on side of microscope; outermost is the fine focus and innermost is the coarse focus. 8. Light source: our scopes have built in light sources. The pushbutton switch is located (most often) behind the light lens on the base.
Carnivores, Omnivores and Herbivores
Topic : Carnivores, Omnivores and Herbivores
Instructions : Find six different types of carnivores, six different types of herbivores and six different omnivores and what they eat.
Animal
What it eats
Carnivores
Vultures
Carcasses, Dead animals
Frogs
Insects, Spiders, Snails, Worms
Wolves
Moose, Elk, Deer, Oxen, Rabbits, Fish
Eagles
Rabbits, Fish, Rodents, Snakes
Snakes
Lizards, Rodents, Birds, Eggs, Insects
Spiders
Insects, Bees, Butterflies, Flies
Herbivores
Koala Bears
Eucalyptus
Gorillas
Fruits, Leaves, Shoots
Cows
Grass, Hay, Corn
Goats
Leaves, Grain, Hay
Rabbits
Carrots, grass, lettuce
Pandas
Bamboo
Omnivores
Chickens
Seeds, worms
Chimpanzees
Fruits, Leaves, Palm Nuts, Seeds, Ants, Fish, Termites
Bears
Fish, Berries, Small Rodents,
Rats
Nuts, Seeds, Insects, Worms, Fish, Birds, Eggs
Raccoons
Berries, Acorns, Baby Mice, Frogs, Small Fish
Humans
Vegetables, Legumes, Grain, Meat
Instructions : Find six different types of carnivores, six different types of herbivores and six different omnivores and what they eat.
Animal
What it eats
Carnivores
Vultures
Carcasses, Dead animals
Frogs
Insects, Spiders, Snails, Worms
Wolves
Moose, Elk, Deer, Oxen, Rabbits, Fish
Eagles
Rabbits, Fish, Rodents, Snakes
Snakes
Lizards, Rodents, Birds, Eggs, Insects
Spiders
Insects, Bees, Butterflies, Flies
Herbivores
Koala Bears
Eucalyptus
Gorillas
Fruits, Leaves, Shoots
Cows
Grass, Hay, Corn
Goats
Leaves, Grain, Hay
Rabbits
Carrots, grass, lettuce
Pandas
Bamboo
Omnivores
Chickens
Seeds, worms
Chimpanzees
Fruits, Leaves, Palm Nuts, Seeds, Ants, Fish, Termites
Bears
Fish, Berries, Small Rodents,
Rats
Nuts, Seeds, Insects, Worms, Fish, Birds, Eggs
Raccoons
Berries, Acorns, Baby Mice, Frogs, Small Fish
Humans
Vegetables, Legumes, Grain, Meat
Diet and Nutrition
Topic: Nutrition and Diet
Topic : Nutrition and Diet
Nutrition and Diet
1. Name five types of food and state what each type is needed for.
- Meat – Meat provides us with protein that is used to help muscle development and build tissue.
- Carbohydrates – Carbohydrates provide a source of energy for the body.
- Legumes – Legumes are needed for the amount of fibre that they contain.
- Fats and Oils – We need fats and oils to protect our organs and keep us warm.
- Fruits and Vegetables – Fruits and vegetables are needed for their vitamins and minerals that keep us healthy and protect us from many diseases.
2. (a) What is roughage and why do we need it?
- Roughage includes feed that is high in fibre and low in digestible nutrients and energy. We need fibre to help our bodies in digestion where it helps to removes undigested waste material from our bodies.
2. (b) Why should a high fibre diet stop you from putting on weight?
- A high fibre diet should stop you from putting on weight because fibre is low in fat and has few calories, high fibre foods also cause you to feel saturated faster.
3.(a) A man has been told by his doctor to reduce the amount of fat he eats and to increase the fibre in his diet. Tick the things below which he might eat and cross out the things he should not have.
White bread rolls, fish and chips, jacket potatoes, cheddar cheese, cakes , poached fish, mixed green salad, boiled eggs, pancakes, grilled bacon, tinned fruit, fried eggs, roast chicken, skimmed milk, pork chop, cottage cheese, fresh fruit, brown bread, jam, coffee and cream, baked beans, shredded wheat, roast peanuts, sausage, brown rice, beefburger, sweets, chocolates, ice cream, plain biscuits.
3.(b) Plan a main meal that would be suitable for him.
To start with, the man could have a small bowl of organic vegetable soup and a mixed salad. After which he would eat the main course of a steamed fish, a jacket potato and ½ a cup of beans to the side. If the man was still hungry or wanted a snack after he could eat some slices of an apple.
4. Explain why an apple is a better snack than a candy bar.
An apple is a better snack than a candy bar for many reasons. The first reason is that apples have the very important vitamin – Vitamin C and a good helping of fibre. Another reason is that an apple (like a candy bar) has many calories however, candy bars have “empty calories” meaning that their calories have no nutritional value. Candy bars are also high in sugar and fat content whereas apples are not. Lastly, because apples contain fibre, they fill you up quicker than a candy bar would. So, overall, apples are better snacks than candy bars.
5. Why do we need :
- (A) calcium – We need calcium to keep our bones and teeth strong, for healthy muscles and to help blood to clot.
- (B) iron – Iron is an important mineral, which helps to supply oxygen to all of our body tissues (through haemoglobin). Also, muscle performance depends on the function of iron.
- (C) iodine – Iodine is needed to make thyroxin in the thyroid gland and to helps relieve nervous energy and calm the body.
6. Explain why a diet consisting of mainly one food is unsatisfactory.
- A diet consisting of mainly one food type is not healthy for your body. Your body cannot survive on one main type of nutrient alone as there are many nutrients that the body needs. Each nutrient helps the body to do a number of specific functions and without it, the systems of the body would malfunction. Therefore, we need all the different nutrients from all the different foods to help our body to work properly.
7. What happens if you eat more than you need?
- It is never good to take more than you need or over-indulge on anything. Your body is only so big and cannot store large amounts of food for too long., because of this we are to only eat what our body can handle. If we eat more than our body needs, the food will most likely not be used for energy right away and then will be stored in places around the body where we do not want it, as fat. This condition in which you eat more than you really need and put on extra weight is called obesity.
8. What happens if you eat less than you need?
- As like with eating more than you need, eating less than what your body needs is a health-hazard. Your body depends on certain vitamins and minerals to keep healthy and strong. If your body does not get these nutrients, it could malfunction. Your immune system would most likely become weak, you would experience dizziness, and you could experience rapid hair loss and most importantly you would lose a lot of weight.
9. How much energy (kJ) do the following need each day?
a. A child aged 8 – 9,500 kJ
b. Female office worker – 8,800 kJ
c. A female doing heavy work – 12,600 kJ
Do men carrying out similar work need the same energy as women?
- No, men carrying out similar work do not need the same energy levels as women. Our bodies are two totally different structures, different looks and different hormones. So for example a man could possibly require less energy to do heavy work because he has more muscles.
10. (a) Keep a record of what you eat everyday for a week.
Day of the Week
Breakfast
Lunch
Dinner
Snacks
Day 1
Tuna Fish and Breadfruit
Pizza Pocket
Chicken Sub
Chicken, Apple, Sugar-Cane, Biscuits
Day 2
Veggie Sausage, Breadfruit
Apple Drink, Doughnut
Escoveitch Fish, Festival
-
Day 3
Papaya, Melon, Grapes
Veggie Burger
Chicken wrap
3 apples, banana
Day 4
Veggie sausage sandwich
-
S+S Chicken, Fried Rice, Cabbage
Sorrel, Plaintain Chips
Day 5
Fried Plaintain, Sorrel
Doughnut, Fruit Snacks
S+S Chicken, Fried Rice
Fries, Crackers
Day 6
Veggie Sausage, Waffle
Pizza, Soda, Spice Bun w/ Cheese
Pasta, Veggie Meatballs
Cereal, Granola Bar
Day 7
Waffle, Toast, Turkey Slices
Fried Rice, Chicken
Pasta, Veggie Meatballs, Cabbage
Cereal, Granola Bar
10 (b)Do you think you eat a good balanced diet?
- No, I do not think that I eat a good, balanced diet. My reason for saying this is that on my observations of my diet of the past week I have realized that I eat a lot of fruits, dairy and grain but the amount of sugar/fatty foods (junk food) I eat is too large of an amount. I’ve also realized from my diet that I don’t have a lot of iron which I’ve found is the reason why I feel very fatigued and weak a lot of times (due to my lack of meat products). I could improve my diet by cutting back on my fats and oils food group and eating more products with iron and protein.
Topic : Nutrition and Diet
Nutrition and Diet
1. Name five types of food and state what each type is needed for.
- Meat – Meat provides us with protein that is used to help muscle development and build tissue.
- Carbohydrates – Carbohydrates provide a source of energy for the body.
- Legumes – Legumes are needed for the amount of fibre that they contain.
- Fats and Oils – We need fats and oils to protect our organs and keep us warm.
- Fruits and Vegetables – Fruits and vegetables are needed for their vitamins and minerals that keep us healthy and protect us from many diseases.
2. (a) What is roughage and why do we need it?
- Roughage includes feed that is high in fibre and low in digestible nutrients and energy. We need fibre to help our bodies in digestion where it helps to removes undigested waste material from our bodies.
2. (b) Why should a high fibre diet stop you from putting on weight?
- A high fibre diet should stop you from putting on weight because fibre is low in fat and has few calories, high fibre foods also cause you to feel saturated faster.
3.(a) A man has been told by his doctor to reduce the amount of fat he eats and to increase the fibre in his diet. Tick the things below which he might eat and cross out the things he should not have.
White bread rolls, fish and chips, jacket potatoes, cheddar cheese, cakes , poached fish, mixed green salad, boiled eggs, pancakes, grilled bacon, tinned fruit, fried eggs, roast chicken, skimmed milk, pork chop, cottage cheese, fresh fruit, brown bread, jam, coffee and cream, baked beans, shredded wheat, roast peanuts, sausage, brown rice, beefburger, sweets, chocolates, ice cream, plain biscuits.
3.(b) Plan a main meal that would be suitable for him.
To start with, the man could have a small bowl of organic vegetable soup and a mixed salad. After which he would eat the main course of a steamed fish, a jacket potato and ½ a cup of beans to the side. If the man was still hungry or wanted a snack after he could eat some slices of an apple.
4. Explain why an apple is a better snack than a candy bar.
An apple is a better snack than a candy bar for many reasons. The first reason is that apples have the very important vitamin – Vitamin C and a good helping of fibre. Another reason is that an apple (like a candy bar) has many calories however, candy bars have “empty calories” meaning that their calories have no nutritional value. Candy bars are also high in sugar and fat content whereas apples are not. Lastly, because apples contain fibre, they fill you up quicker than a candy bar would. So, overall, apples are better snacks than candy bars.
5. Why do we need :
- (A) calcium – We need calcium to keep our bones and teeth strong, for healthy muscles and to help blood to clot.
- (B) iron – Iron is an important mineral, which helps to supply oxygen to all of our body tissues (through haemoglobin). Also, muscle performance depends on the function of iron.
- (C) iodine – Iodine is needed to make thyroxin in the thyroid gland and to helps relieve nervous energy and calm the body.
6. Explain why a diet consisting of mainly one food is unsatisfactory.
- A diet consisting of mainly one food type is not healthy for your body. Your body cannot survive on one main type of nutrient alone as there are many nutrients that the body needs. Each nutrient helps the body to do a number of specific functions and without it, the systems of the body would malfunction. Therefore, we need all the different nutrients from all the different foods to help our body to work properly.
7. What happens if you eat more than you need?
- It is never good to take more than you need or over-indulge on anything. Your body is only so big and cannot store large amounts of food for too long., because of this we are to only eat what our body can handle. If we eat more than our body needs, the food will most likely not be used for energy right away and then will be stored in places around the body where we do not want it, as fat. This condition in which you eat more than you really need and put on extra weight is called obesity.
8. What happens if you eat less than you need?
- As like with eating more than you need, eating less than what your body needs is a health-hazard. Your body depends on certain vitamins and minerals to keep healthy and strong. If your body does not get these nutrients, it could malfunction. Your immune system would most likely become weak, you would experience dizziness, and you could experience rapid hair loss and most importantly you would lose a lot of weight.
9. How much energy (kJ) do the following need each day?
a. A child aged 8 – 9,500 kJ
b. Female office worker – 8,800 kJ
c. A female doing heavy work – 12,600 kJ
Do men carrying out similar work need the same energy as women?
- No, men carrying out similar work do not need the same energy levels as women. Our bodies are two totally different structures, different looks and different hormones. So for example a man could possibly require less energy to do heavy work because he has more muscles.
10. (a) Keep a record of what you eat everyday for a week.
Day of the Week
Breakfast
Lunch
Dinner
Snacks
Day 1
Tuna Fish and Breadfruit
Pizza Pocket
Chicken Sub
Chicken, Apple, Sugar-Cane, Biscuits
Day 2
Veggie Sausage, Breadfruit
Apple Drink, Doughnut
Escoveitch Fish, Festival
-
Day 3
Papaya, Melon, Grapes
Veggie Burger
Chicken wrap
3 apples, banana
Day 4
Veggie sausage sandwich
-
S+S Chicken, Fried Rice, Cabbage
Sorrel, Plaintain Chips
Day 5
Fried Plaintain, Sorrel
Doughnut, Fruit Snacks
S+S Chicken, Fried Rice
Fries, Crackers
Day 6
Veggie Sausage, Waffle
Pizza, Soda, Spice Bun w/ Cheese
Pasta, Veggie Meatballs
Cereal, Granola Bar
Day 7
Waffle, Toast, Turkey Slices
Fried Rice, Chicken
Pasta, Veggie Meatballs, Cabbage
Cereal, Granola Bar
10 (b)Do you think you eat a good balanced diet?
- No, I do not think that I eat a good, balanced diet. My reason for saying this is that on my observations of my diet of the past week I have realized that I eat a lot of fruits, dairy and grain but the amount of sugar/fatty foods (junk food) I eat is too large of an amount. I’ve also realized from my diet that I don’t have a lot of iron which I’ve found is the reason why I feel very fatigued and weak a lot of times (due to my lack of meat products). I could improve my diet by cutting back on my fats and oils food group and eating more products with iron and protein.
Presentation on Electricity
Science Project
May 7, 2006
Group Members :
Positions :
Main Presenter : ___________Scientist Reader: _______________
Holder-upper-person-thingy : ____________
Experiment performer : ______________
Time : 5-7 min
Materials : Sketch pad (large), balloon or comb, cereal (“o” shaped or puff), string, wool sweater / dry hair
Procedure :
1. Tie a piece of the cereal to one end of a 12 inch piece of thread. Find a place to attach the other end so that the cereal does not hang close to anything else. (You can tape the thread to the edge of a table but check with your parents first.)
2. Wash the comb to remove any oils and dry it well.
3. Charge the comb by running it through long, dry hair several times, or vigorously rub the comb on a wool sweater.
4. Slowly bring the comb near the cereal. It will swing to touch the comb. Hold it still until the cereal jumps away by itself.
5. Now try to touch the comb to the cereal again. It will move away as the comb approaches.
6. This project can also be done by substituting a balloon for the comb.
Explanation : (To be written down on the sketch pad…)
Combing your hair moved electrons from your hair to the comb. The comb had a negative charge. The neutral cereal was attracted to it. When they touched, electrons slowly moved from the comb to the cereal. Now both objects had the same negative charge, and the cereal was repelled.
Dilemma : Where are we going to attach the string to???
Sketch Pad – 6 pages
1st page : Our Presentation on Static Electricity (names)
2nd page : Materials and Illustrations
3rd page : “Step 1 : Gain a static charge. Rub the balloon or plastic comb on dry hair or a woolen sweater. (diagram)What’s happening : This gives the balloon a negative charge. Because negative electrons are the esiest to come off when rubbed.
“Now that the balloon is charged, we move on to the next part of the experiment”
4th page : Magentism .Put the charged object near to the cereal. (diagram) The balloon and the cereal are attracted. This is because…
What’s happeneing : The neutral/positive cereal is attracted to the negatively charged balloon. They stick together because they are in a sense opposites. The negative electrons from the balloon are slowly being transferred to the cereal.
5th page : It dropped. -> Repulsion. Now that the cereal is finished charging and is charged with negative electrons it has dropped.
May 7, 2006
Group Members :
Positions :
Main Presenter : ___________Scientist Reader: _______________
Holder-upper-person-thingy : ____________
Experiment performer : ______________
Time : 5-7 min
Materials : Sketch pad (large), balloon or comb, cereal (“o” shaped or puff), string, wool sweater / dry hair
Procedure :
1. Tie a piece of the cereal to one end of a 12 inch piece of thread. Find a place to attach the other end so that the cereal does not hang close to anything else. (You can tape the thread to the edge of a table but check with your parents first.)
2. Wash the comb to remove any oils and dry it well.
3. Charge the comb by running it through long, dry hair several times, or vigorously rub the comb on a wool sweater.
4. Slowly bring the comb near the cereal. It will swing to touch the comb. Hold it still until the cereal jumps away by itself.
5. Now try to touch the comb to the cereal again. It will move away as the comb approaches.
6. This project can also be done by substituting a balloon for the comb.
Explanation : (To be written down on the sketch pad…)
Combing your hair moved electrons from your hair to the comb. The comb had a negative charge. The neutral cereal was attracted to it. When they touched, electrons slowly moved from the comb to the cereal. Now both objects had the same negative charge, and the cereal was repelled.
Dilemma : Where are we going to attach the string to???
Sketch Pad – 6 pages
1st page : Our Presentation on Static Electricity (names)
2nd page : Materials and Illustrations
3rd page : “Step 1 : Gain a static charge. Rub the balloon or plastic comb on dry hair or a woolen sweater. (diagram)What’s happening : This gives the balloon a negative charge. Because negative electrons are the esiest to come off when rubbed.
“Now that the balloon is charged, we move on to the next part of the experiment”
4th page : Magentism .Put the charged object near to the cereal. (diagram) The balloon and the cereal are attracted. This is because…
What’s happeneing : The neutral/positive cereal is attracted to the negatively charged balloon. They stick together because they are in a sense opposites. The negative electrons from the balloon are slowly being transferred to the cereal.
5th page : It dropped. -> Repulsion. Now that the cereal is finished charging and is charged with negative electrons it has dropped.
Presentation on how to make pottery
Science Presentation on the making of Pottery
Part 1 – Introduction – W. [30 secs]
Part 2 – Definition-
Pottery consists of objects that are first shaped of wet clay, then hardened by baking. Pottery includes both decorative and practical items such as bowls, vases, dishes, and lamps. Four steps are needed to make a pottery product: preparing the clay mixture, shaping the clay, decorating and glazing the item, and firing (baking). The firing temperature gives pottery its finished appearance and its strength.
There are three major pottery types: (1) earthenware, (2) stoneware, and (3) porcelain. Each type is distinguished by its clay mixture and the temperature at which it is baked or fired.
Part 3 – Types of Pottery – – [45 secs]
There are many different types of clay. Variences in clay are a direct result of the materials that were broken down to form raw clay.
Porcelain clay is one of the purer forms of clay, basically composed of kaolin.This type of clay vitrifies at higher temperature ranges from 2300 degrees F and can withstand much higher firing temperatures without melting or slumping. Porcelain clay when fired is very white.
Stoneware clay is a courser form of high firing clay containing kaolin as well as, lower firing clays. It may also include iron, which results in it's off white to reddish appearance before and after firing. This clay can also be formulated to withstand
temperatures equal to porcelain.
Earthenware clay is considered low fire clay. It vitrifies at much lower temperatures 1000 degrees F, but can melt to a liquid as low as 1300 degrees F.
Part 3 – Tools used in making pottery – – [1 min]
talks about and introduces the : potters wheel [old and new], the rolling pin, the potter’s ribs, the sculpting thumb, the basic tools of a potter, the plastic sculpting set plastic sculpting set
And a plethora of others.
Part 4 : Making pottery “then”-
*Uses chart while acts out”
Part 5 : The Actual Making of Pottery -
Potters start their work with lumps of moist clay and end it with finished pieces of pottery. The means by which such ends are accomplished vary widely and what follows should be regarded as an outline of one sequence of operations sometimes followed, chosen from the many that are practised. Besides the simpler , four stpe method that mentioned earlier this is a more elaborate and complex method we will demonstrate.
- Preparing the clay.
A portion of clay is kneaded until it is thoroughly mixed and of even moisture content throughout. If at this stage the clay is too dry to use, water is added, and if the clay is too wet, it is allowed to dry out to the condition required. After mixing, the clay is wedged to remove entrapped air. When wedging clay by hand a ball of the material is thrown repeatedly onto a hard surface, to drive out the air. Mixing and wedging are operations that can be carried out by hand, or mechanical mixers and wedging machines may be used. [Machines used for wedging clay are called pug-mills.]
– Shaping the wares
Wares may be shaped by hand, by using the hands in conjunction with a machine such as a potter's wheel or by mechanical means alone. Other methods of shaping are also used, including slip-casting and pressing.
- Drying and finishing.
After shaping it is common for pottery wares to be air-dried to a leather-hard condition and finished by trimming off unwanted clay on a wheel, or perhaps by sandpapering the surface of the ware to a fine finish. Shaped but still unfired pottery is called greenware.
- First or bisque firing.
Greenwares are fragile and are sometimes given a first or bisque firing to harden them for convenient handling and to reduce the risk of breakage during glazing and decorating. In this condition the ware is called biscuit-ware or bisque-ware. Temperatures used for bisque-firing may be either higher or lower than those used for final firing, depending on the characteristics of the materials used and the preferences of the potter.
- Glazing and decorating.
After bisque-firing the wares may be coated with a layer of glaze, often applied by dipping.
O’Neil - Second or glaze firing. The glazed wares are re-fired to melt the glaze and bond it to the clay body, thus forming a glassy covering on the surface of the pieces.
- Enamelling. Glazed wares are sometimes decorated with coloured enamels and re-fired in a glaze kiln or muffle-furnace.
INTERACTIVE ZONE –
There are many different simple methods of making pottery such as the slab contstruction method in which the sides or slabs of clay are cut out and then put together to form a piece of pottery or usually a box. Coil construction, which is when you make the coils and put them one on top of the other in a circular fashion to create the piece of pottery. The simplest method by far is the pinch pot method. It is useful for getting the feel of your clay and knowing what limits you are working with.
The pinch pot method is a simple three steps. The first step is to roll your clay into a ball. After this you carefully press your thumb in the middle as you “pull up the sides”. Turn the piece as you pull the sides up to ensure evenness all around. The final step is to gently pat the bottom on a flat surface to create a bottom for your piece. There you have it.
Conclusion :
Order of Events
Introduction – – 30 secs
What is pottery? –– 1 min
Types of pottery –
- earthenware –
- ceramic –
- stoneware –
Tools used in making pottery –
Making pottery then – * narrates and * acts out.
Making pottery now –reads and _________ acts out.
Interactive Zone – 1 min
Conclusion –
Props Needed :
- Cartridge paper charts
- Water bowl
- Spray pottle to “glaze”
- Kiln
- Pottery
- Clay samples
- Clay for 36 people
- Rock for crushing in bowl
Part 1 – Introduction – W. [30 secs]
Part 2 – Definition-
Pottery consists of objects that are first shaped of wet clay, then hardened by baking. Pottery includes both decorative and practical items such as bowls, vases, dishes, and lamps. Four steps are needed to make a pottery product: preparing the clay mixture, shaping the clay, decorating and glazing the item, and firing (baking). The firing temperature gives pottery its finished appearance and its strength.
There are three major pottery types: (1) earthenware, (2) stoneware, and (3) porcelain. Each type is distinguished by its clay mixture and the temperature at which it is baked or fired.
Part 3 – Types of Pottery – – [45 secs]
There are many different types of clay. Variences in clay are a direct result of the materials that were broken down to form raw clay.
Porcelain clay is one of the purer forms of clay, basically composed of kaolin.This type of clay vitrifies at higher temperature ranges from 2300 degrees F and can withstand much higher firing temperatures without melting or slumping. Porcelain clay when fired is very white.
Stoneware clay is a courser form of high firing clay containing kaolin as well as, lower firing clays. It may also include iron, which results in it's off white to reddish appearance before and after firing. This clay can also be formulated to withstand
temperatures equal to porcelain.
Earthenware clay is considered low fire clay. It vitrifies at much lower temperatures 1000 degrees F, but can melt to a liquid as low as 1300 degrees F.
Part 3 – Tools used in making pottery – – [1 min]
talks about and introduces the : potters wheel [old and new], the rolling pin, the potter’s ribs, the sculpting thumb, the basic tools of a potter, the plastic sculpting set plastic sculpting set
And a plethora of others.
Part 4 : Making pottery “then”-
*Uses chart while acts out”
Part 5 : The Actual Making of Pottery -
Potters start their work with lumps of moist clay and end it with finished pieces of pottery. The means by which such ends are accomplished vary widely and what follows should be regarded as an outline of one sequence of operations sometimes followed, chosen from the many that are practised. Besides the simpler , four stpe method that mentioned earlier this is a more elaborate and complex method we will demonstrate.
- Preparing the clay.
A portion of clay is kneaded until it is thoroughly mixed and of even moisture content throughout. If at this stage the clay is too dry to use, water is added, and if the clay is too wet, it is allowed to dry out to the condition required. After mixing, the clay is wedged to remove entrapped air. When wedging clay by hand a ball of the material is thrown repeatedly onto a hard surface, to drive out the air. Mixing and wedging are operations that can be carried out by hand, or mechanical mixers and wedging machines may be used. [Machines used for wedging clay are called pug-mills.]
– Shaping the wares
Wares may be shaped by hand, by using the hands in conjunction with a machine such as a potter's wheel or by mechanical means alone. Other methods of shaping are also used, including slip-casting and pressing.
- Drying and finishing.
After shaping it is common for pottery wares to be air-dried to a leather-hard condition and finished by trimming off unwanted clay on a wheel, or perhaps by sandpapering the surface of the ware to a fine finish. Shaped but still unfired pottery is called greenware.
- First or bisque firing.
Greenwares are fragile and are sometimes given a first or bisque firing to harden them for convenient handling and to reduce the risk of breakage during glazing and decorating. In this condition the ware is called biscuit-ware or bisque-ware. Temperatures used for bisque-firing may be either higher or lower than those used for final firing, depending on the characteristics of the materials used and the preferences of the potter.
- Glazing and decorating.
After bisque-firing the wares may be coated with a layer of glaze, often applied by dipping.
O’Neil - Second or glaze firing. The glazed wares are re-fired to melt the glaze and bond it to the clay body, thus forming a glassy covering on the surface of the pieces.
- Enamelling. Glazed wares are sometimes decorated with coloured enamels and re-fired in a glaze kiln or muffle-furnace.
INTERACTIVE ZONE –
There are many different simple methods of making pottery such as the slab contstruction method in which the sides or slabs of clay are cut out and then put together to form a piece of pottery or usually a box. Coil construction, which is when you make the coils and put them one on top of the other in a circular fashion to create the piece of pottery. The simplest method by far is the pinch pot method. It is useful for getting the feel of your clay and knowing what limits you are working with.
The pinch pot method is a simple three steps. The first step is to roll your clay into a ball. After this you carefully press your thumb in the middle as you “pull up the sides”. Turn the piece as you pull the sides up to ensure evenness all around. The final step is to gently pat the bottom on a flat surface to create a bottom for your piece. There you have it.
Conclusion :
Order of Events
Introduction – – 30 secs
What is pottery? –– 1 min
Types of pottery –
- earthenware –
- ceramic –
- stoneware –
Tools used in making pottery –
Making pottery then – * narrates and * acts out.
Making pottery now –reads and _________ acts out.
Interactive Zone – 1 min
Conclusion –
Props Needed :
- Cartridge paper charts
- Water bowl
- Spray pottle to “glaze”
- Kiln
- Pottery
- Clay samples
- Clay for 36 people
- Rock for crushing in bowl
Sickel Cell
Sickel Cell Informaiton
1 ) Breif definition : Sickle cell anemia is an hereditary disease in which the red blood cells, normally disc-shaped, become crescent shaped.
2) Expanded definiiton : Sickle cell anemia is an inherited blood disorder in which the body produces c-shaped red blood cells. The red blood cells deform because they contain an abnormal type of hemoglobin, called hemoglobin S, instead of the normal hemoglobin, called hemoglobin A.
Because of their shape, these cells may stick to each other or to the sides of blood vessels, and cause serious health disorders. That is, they function abnormally and cause small blood clots. These clots give rise to recurrent painful episodes called "sickle cell pain crises." The genetic defect affects hemoglobin, which carries oxygen throughout the body
3) Causes : As we said before, sickle cell is hereditary. Now when one parent carries the sickle cell gene – the child will get a sickle cell trait which can actually be beneficial to the body. When both parents carry the trait, the child will get sickle cell anaemia.
4 ) Symptoms : Although sickle cell disease is present at birth, symptoms usually don't occur until after 4 months of age. Sickle cell anemia may become life threatening . Blocked blood vessels and damaged organs can cause acute painful episodes, or "crises." There are several types of crises: affecting the bones of the back, the long bones, and the chest.
paleness
yellow eyes/skin – jaundice
fatigue
breathlessness
rapid heart rate
delayed growth and puberty
susceptibility to infections
ulcers on the lower legs (in adolescents and adults)
bone pain
attacks of abdominal pain
fever
OR
bloody urine (hematuria )
frequent urination
excessive thirst
painful erection (priapism; this occurs in 10-40% of men with the disease)
chest pain
poor eyesight/blindness
5) Prevention : This disease cannot be prevented as it is a genetic defect. [Unless you don’t conceive with another carrier of the disease] However, there are some general guidelines that may keep the condition under control.
Take daily folic acid supplements to build new red blood cells.
Drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration.
Avoid temperature extremes.
Avoid overexertion and stress.
Get plenty of rest.
Get regular check-ups with knowledgeable healthcare providers.
Seek genetic counseling
Among other things.
5. I.) Treatments
Treatments that are availabe are :
Therapy ; The purpose of therapy is to manage and control symptoms and to try to limit the frequency of crises.
During a sickle crisis, certain therapies may be necessary. Painful episodes are treated with analgesics and adequate liquid intake. Treatment of pain is critical. Non-narcotic medications may be effective, but some patients will require narcotics.
Newer drugs are being developed to manage sickle cell anemia. Some of these agents work by trying to induce the body to produce more fetal hemoglobin (therefore decreasing the amount
of sickling) or by increasing the binding of oxygen to sickle cells. But as yet, there are no other widely used drugs that are available for treatment.
Early diagnosis and prevention of complications is critical in sickle cell disease treatment. Treatment may include:
pain medications (for sickle cell crises)
drinking plenty of water daily (eight to 10 glasses) or receiving fluid intravenously (to prevent and treat pain crises)
blood transfusionsFor anemia and to prevent stroke, blood transfusions may be used. Transfusions are also used to dilute the HbS with normal hemoglobin to treat chronic pain, acute chest syndrome, splenic sequestration, and other emergencies.
penicillin (to prevent infections)
folic acid (to help prevent severe anemia)
hydroxyureaHydroxyurea is a medication that has recently been developed that may help reduce the frequency of pain crises and acute chest syndrome. It may also help decrease the need for frequent blood transfusions. The long-term effects of the medication, however, are unknown.
bone marrow transplantBone marrow transplant has been effective in curing some persons with sickle cell disease; the decision to undergo this procedure is based on the severity of the disease and ability to find a suitable
really ? [ adisa ] <3 says:
Fact : Did you know that 1 out of every 500 Afircan Americans are diagnosed with this disease. And 1 out of 12 african americans have the sickle cell trait.
Sickle cell anemia can only result when two carriers with sickle cell trait have a child together. Therefore, genetic counseling is recommended for all carriers of sickle cell trait (about 1 in 12 African Americans has sickle cell trait ).
Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anemia is also available. Prompt treatment of infections, adequate oxygenation, and preventing dehydration may prevent sickling of red blood cells. Antibiotics and vaccinations may prevent infections.
General health visits with a physician are recommended to ensure the patient is getting adequate nutrition, maintaining proper activity levels, and receiving proper vaccinations.
PREVENTING CRISES
Parents whose children have sickle cell should encourage their children to lead normal lives.
6 ) Three ways you can care for your circulatory system
1) Get lots of excersisce regulary to keep the blood vessels and heart in good condition
2) Eat healtily, avoid too much of one kind or food or fats and oils.
3) Avoid destructive habits such as smoking or excessive drinking.
1 ) Breif definition : Sickle cell anemia is an hereditary disease in which the red blood cells, normally disc-shaped, become crescent shaped.
2) Expanded definiiton : Sickle cell anemia is an inherited blood disorder in which the body produces c-shaped red blood cells. The red blood cells deform because they contain an abnormal type of hemoglobin, called hemoglobin S, instead of the normal hemoglobin, called hemoglobin A.
Because of their shape, these cells may stick to each other or to the sides of blood vessels, and cause serious health disorders. That is, they function abnormally and cause small blood clots. These clots give rise to recurrent painful episodes called "sickle cell pain crises." The genetic defect affects hemoglobin, which carries oxygen throughout the body
3) Causes : As we said before, sickle cell is hereditary. Now when one parent carries the sickle cell gene – the child will get a sickle cell trait which can actually be beneficial to the body. When both parents carry the trait, the child will get sickle cell anaemia.
4 ) Symptoms : Although sickle cell disease is present at birth, symptoms usually don't occur until after 4 months of age. Sickle cell anemia may become life threatening . Blocked blood vessels and damaged organs can cause acute painful episodes, or "crises." There are several types of crises: affecting the bones of the back, the long bones, and the chest.
paleness
yellow eyes/skin – jaundice
fatigue
breathlessness
rapid heart rate
delayed growth and puberty
susceptibility to infections
ulcers on the lower legs (in adolescents and adults)
bone pain
attacks of abdominal pain
fever
OR
bloody urine (hematuria )
frequent urination
excessive thirst
painful erection (priapism; this occurs in 10-40% of men with the disease)
chest pain
poor eyesight/blindness
5) Prevention : This disease cannot be prevented as it is a genetic defect. [Unless you don’t conceive with another carrier of the disease] However, there are some general guidelines that may keep the condition under control.
Take daily folic acid supplements to build new red blood cells.
Drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration.
Avoid temperature extremes.
Avoid overexertion and stress.
Get plenty of rest.
Get regular check-ups with knowledgeable healthcare providers.
Seek genetic counseling
Among other things.
5. I.) Treatments
Treatments that are availabe are :
Therapy ; The purpose of therapy is to manage and control symptoms and to try to limit the frequency of crises.
During a sickle crisis, certain therapies may be necessary. Painful episodes are treated with analgesics and adequate liquid intake. Treatment of pain is critical. Non-narcotic medications may be effective, but some patients will require narcotics.
Newer drugs are being developed to manage sickle cell anemia. Some of these agents work by trying to induce the body to produce more fetal hemoglobin (therefore decreasing the amount
of sickling) or by increasing the binding of oxygen to sickle cells. But as yet, there are no other widely used drugs that are available for treatment.
Early diagnosis and prevention of complications is critical in sickle cell disease treatment. Treatment may include:
pain medications (for sickle cell crises)
drinking plenty of water daily (eight to 10 glasses) or receiving fluid intravenously (to prevent and treat pain crises)
blood transfusionsFor anemia and to prevent stroke, blood transfusions may be used. Transfusions are also used to dilute the HbS with normal hemoglobin to treat chronic pain, acute chest syndrome, splenic sequestration, and other emergencies.
penicillin (to prevent infections)
folic acid (to help prevent severe anemia)
hydroxyureaHydroxyurea is a medication that has recently been developed that may help reduce the frequency of pain crises and acute chest syndrome. It may also help decrease the need for frequent blood transfusions. The long-term effects of the medication, however, are unknown.
bone marrow transplantBone marrow transplant has been effective in curing some persons with sickle cell disease; the decision to undergo this procedure is based on the severity of the disease and ability to find a suitable
really ? [ adisa ] <3 says:
Fact : Did you know that 1 out of every 500 Afircan Americans are diagnosed with this disease. And 1 out of 12 african americans have the sickle cell trait.
Sickle cell anemia can only result when two carriers with sickle cell trait have a child together. Therefore, genetic counseling is recommended for all carriers of sickle cell trait (about 1 in 12 African Americans has sickle cell trait ).
Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anemia is also available. Prompt treatment of infections, adequate oxygenation, and preventing dehydration may prevent sickling of red blood cells. Antibiotics and vaccinations may prevent infections.
General health visits with a physician are recommended to ensure the patient is getting adequate nutrition, maintaining proper activity levels, and receiving proper vaccinations.
PREVENTING CRISES
Parents whose children have sickle cell should encourage their children to lead normal lives.
6 ) Three ways you can care for your circulatory system
1) Get lots of excersisce regulary to keep the blood vessels and heart in good condition
2) Eat healtily, avoid too much of one kind or food or fats and oils.
3) Avoid destructive habits such as smoking or excessive drinking.
The Scientific Revolution
Definition of the Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution was an epistemological transformation that swept over Europe in the seventeenth century. This period roughly began with Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who asserted a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos, it ended with Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who proposed universal laws and a Mechanical Universe. However, we must note that historians have consistently disputed the presumed beginning and ending dates of the much-disputed 'Scientific Revolution', as some extend it to 1750, while others say it ended with the publication of Newton's Principia (1687).
Science, in the modern sense of the term, came into being during the Scientific Revolution, with the merging of the craft tradition with scientific theory and the evolution of the scientific method. Before this period, nothing like science in the modern sense existed. The feeling of dissatisfaction with the older philosophical approach had begun much earlier and had produced other results, such as the Protestant Reformation, but the revolution in science began with the work of gifted scientists, including Kepler, in the 16th century and reached full flower in the 17th cent.
The Scientific Revolution developed as an offshoot of the Renaissance. The same spirit of inquiry that fueled the Renaissance led scientists to question traditional beliefs about the workings of the universe. One of the main ideas to come out of the Scientific Revolution was the use of the Scientific Method. This period brought us what all scientists, chemists, biologists and physicists utilize today. The Scientific Method uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on how the universe works. At the beginning of the scientific revolution, science was highly based on Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, but at the end of this period, science was mathematical, mechanical, and empirical.
Factors Which Contributed to the Birth of the Scientific Revolution
There are numerous factors which led to the start of the Scientific Revolution in Europe. They are:
1. The Counter-Reformation of the Church during the Renaissance.
Many Europeans began to question the authority of the Church. Indeed, a large faction broke away from the Church, in doing so breaking free from the restriction of intellectual progress. The fierce censorship of the Church's response to the Reformation, the Counter- Reformation, further pushed people from the Catholic fold and appeared to many as foolishly protective of its outdated doctrines. In this atmosphere the Scientific Revolution blossomed, and the Aristotelian system, which the Church stood by fell.
2. The Optimism of the Renaissance Humanists
The optimism of Renaissance humanists was an early factor in the development of the Scientific Revolution. Europeans, having just endured two centuries of suffering in the form of black plague, starvation, the Hundred Years' War, economic collapse, and the religious insecurity of the Great Schism, emerged in the thirteenth century with a newfound sense of optimism. Weary of a culture of death and loss, they turned to their creativity and intelligence as the answer to alleviating human suffering. Instead of being a wretched soul completely subject to uncontrollable forces such as God, death, and Fortune, he is worthy of dignity and capable of taking control of his destiny.
3. The Printing Press
Probably the greatest contribution to the birth of the Scientific Revolution was the development of printing by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450s. Before the introduction of printing, scholars shared limited numbers of manuscripts, risked confusion by copyist errors and communicated with other scholars by letters. But after the development of movable type and cheaply produced paper, the information could be quickly and widely distributed. The Print Revolution made the complete realization of the scientific method possible.
4. Trade and Expansion of Trade
Navigational problems of sea voyages generated scientific research. Overseas specimens aroused people’s interest in different worlds. Navigation problems also needed mathematics to solve them.
5. Medieval Universities
The growth of universities where medieval philosophers had some independence from theologians also contributed to this. These universities established departments of astronomy, mathematics, and physics.
Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus, Nicholas, 1473–1543, Polish astronomer. The work that immortalized him is De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, in which he set forth his beliefs concerning the universe, known as the Copernican system. That treatise, which was dedicated to Pope Paul III, was probably completed by 1530 but was not published until 1543, when Copernicus was on his deathbed. Modern astronomy was built upon the foundation of the Copernican system. The Copernican system can be summarized in seven propositions. They are:
There is no one center in the universe.
The Earth's center is not the center of the universe.
The center of the universe is near the sun.
The distance from the Earth to the sun is imperceptible compared with the distance to the stars.
The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
The apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun is caused by the Earth revolving around the sun.
The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the motion of the Earth, from which one observes.
Johannes Kepler
Kepler, Johannes 1571–1630, German astronomer. From his student days at the Univ. of Tübingen, he was influenced by the Copernican teachings. From 1593 to 1598 he was professor of mathematics at Graz and while there wrote his Mysterium cosmographicum (1596). This work opened the way to friendly intercourse with Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and in 1600 Kepler became Tycho's assistant in his observatory near Prague. On Tycho's death (1601) Kepler succeeded him as court mathematician to Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. In 1609 he published the results of Tycho's calculations of the orbit of Mars. In this celebrated work were stated the first two of what became known as Kepler's laws. In 1612, becoming mathematician to the states of Upper Austria, he moved to Linz. He wrote an epitome of the astronomy of Copernicus in 1618, and in 1619 De cometis and Harmonice mundi (in which was announced the third of Kepler's laws). In 1626, Kepler moved to Ulm. After his death his manuscript writings, bought by Catherine II of Russia, were placed in the observatory of Pulkovo.
His three laws of planetary motion were:
1. Kepler's elliptical orbit law:
The planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.
2. Kepler's equal-area law:
The line connecting a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal amounts of time.
3. Kepler's law of periods:
The time required for a planet to orbit the sun, called its period, is proportional to the long axis of the ellipse raised to the 3/2 power. The constant of proportionality is the same for all the planets.
Galileo Galilei
Galileo, 1564–1642, was a great Italian astronomer, mathematician, and physicist. By his persistent investigation of natural laws he laid foundations for modern experimental science, and by the construction of astronomical telescopes he greatly enlarged humanity's vision and conception of the universe. He gave a mathematical formulation to many physical laws. Some of Galileo’s fundamental contributions to modern astronomy include:
1. The Telescope
Galileo improved the telescope and was one of the first to use it to observe the sky, and for a time was one of very few people able to construct one good enough for the purpose. Based only on sketchy descriptions of the telescope, invented in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo made his with greater magnification. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Sidereal Messenger).
2. Jupiter’s Moons
On January 7, 1610 Galileo, using his telescope, discovered Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons): Io, Europa, Callisto and Ganymede. He determined that these moons were orbiting the planet since they would appear and disappear, which he attributed to their movement behind Jupiter. Later astronomers overruled Galileo's naming of these objects, changing his Medicean stars to Galilean moons.
3. Sunspots
Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although there is evidence that Chinese astronomers had done so before. Galileo observed the Sun through his telescope and saw that the Sun had dark patches on it that we now call sunspots (he eventually went blind, perhaps from damage suffered by looking at the Sun with his telescope). Furthermore, he observed motion of the sunspots indicating that the Sun was rotating on an axis.
4. The Phases of Venus
Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases like the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. By contrast, the geocentric model of Ptolemy predicted that only crescent and new phases would be seen, since Venus was thought to remain between the Sun and Earth during its orbit around the Earth.
René Descartes
René Descartes (1596–1650), also known as Cartesius, was a noted French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the "Founder of Modern Philosophy" and the "Father of Modern Mathematics," he ranks as one of the most important and influential thinkers of modern times. For good or bad, much of subsequent western philosophy is a reaction to his writings, which have been closely studied from his time down to the present day. Descartes was one of the key thinkers of the Scientific Revolution in the Western World.
Descartes is often regarded as the first modern thinker to provide a philosophical framework for the natural sciences as these began to develop. His most famous statement is ‘Cogito ergo sum’, which in English translates to ‘I think, therefore I am’ (Discourse on Method. 1637).
Apart from philosophy, Descartes was the inventor of the Cartesian coordinate system used in plane geometry and algebra. Descartes founded analytic geometry, that bridge between algebra and geometry crucial to the invention of the calculus and analysis. Descartes' reflections on mind and mechanism began the strain of western thought that much later, impelled by the invention of the electronic computer and by the possibility of machine intelligence, blossomed into.
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman and essayist. He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the scientific revolution. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method. Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses.
The Baconian method involved the collection of data, their judicious interpretation, the carrying out of experiments, thus to learn the secrets of nature by organized observation of its regularities. Bacon's proposals had a powerful influence on the development of science in seventeenth century Europe.
His famous aphorism, ‘knowledge is power’, is found in the Meditations. Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of the human race. Many members of the British Royal Society saw Bacon as advocating the kind of enquiry conducted by that society.
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 – March 31, 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor, and natural philosopher who is generally regarded as one of the most influential scientists in history. Newton was a fellow of the Royal Society of England. Newton summarized his discoveries in terrestrial and celestial mechanics in his Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica [mathematical principles of natural philosophy] (1687), one of the greatest milestones in the history of science, wherein he described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. In it he showed how his principle of universal gravitation provided an explanation both of falling bodies on the earth and of the motions of planets, comets, and other bodies in the heavens.
1. Newton's First Law: Law of Inertia (or Galileo’s Law)
"An object at rest or traveling in uniform motion will remain at rest or traveling in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net force."
2. Newton's second law: Law of Motion
“The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.”
3. Newton's third law: Law of reciprocal actions
“All forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.”
Among other scientific discoveries, Newton realized that the spectrum of colours observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism, and notably argued that light is composed of particles.
Edward Jenner
Edward Jenner (May 17, 1749 – January 26, 1823) was an English country doctor who studied nature and his natural surroundings from childhood and practiced medicine in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England. He is famous as the first doctor to introduce and study the smallpox vaccine. He laid the groundwork for the science of immunology.
He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following a careful study combining observation, experiment and dissection into a description of the previously misunderstood life of the cuckoo in the nest.
His description of the newly-hatched cuckoo pushing its host's eggs and fledglings from the nest (contrary to the existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it) was only confirmed in the 20th century when photography became feasible. Having observed the behaviour, he demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it—the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back which is not present after 12 days of life, in which it cups eggs and other chicks to push them out of the nest. It had been assumed that the adult bird did this, but the adult does not remain in the area for sufficiently long.
His invaluable experiments beginning in 1796 with the vaccination of eight-year-old James Phipps proved that cowpox provided immunity against smallpox. His discovery was instrumental in ridding many areas of the world of a dread disease and laid the foundations of modern immunology as a science.
William Harvey
William Harvey (April 1, 1578–June 3, 1657) was an English physician considered by many to have laid the foundation of modern medicine. Harvey was first to demonstrate the function of the heart and the complete circulation of the blood, a feat especially remarkable because it was accomplished without the aid of a microscope. Acceptance of his theories was slow in coming, and it was not until 1827 that they were fully substantiated. He also contributed greatly to the advance of comparative anatomy and embryology. He also hypothesized the existence of a mammalian egg, and dissected dozens of deer in the King's hunting park in hopes of finding one, although he failed to do so.
Joseph Lister
Joseph Lister, (April 5, 1827 – February 10, 1912) was a famous British surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds.
He brought to surgery the principle of antisepsis, an outgrowth of Pasteur's theory that bacteria cause infection. In 1865, Lister proved the effectiveness of his methods, thus founding modern antiseptic surgery. Using carbolic acid as the antiseptic agent, he devised techniques of applying it that, when used in conjunction with his heat sterilization of instruments, brought about dramatic decreases in postoperative fatality. He developed absorbable ligatures and the drainage tube, both of which have come into general use for wounds and incisions.
Antoine Lavoisier
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794) was a French nobleman, chemist, physicist, financer, biologist, and economist. The "father of modern chemistry," he stated the first version of the Law of Conservation of Matter, recognized and named oxygen (1778), disproved the phlogiston theory, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.
Much of his work was the result of extending and coordinating the research of others; his concepts were largely evolved through his superior ability to organize and interpret and were substantiated by his own experiments. He was one of the first to introduce effective quantitative methods in the study of chemical reactions. He explained combustion and thereby discredited the phlogiston theory. He also described clearly the role of oxygen in the respiration of both animals and plants. His classification of substances is the basis of the modern distinction between chemical elements and compounds and of the system of chemical nomenclature. He also conducted experiments to establish the composition of water and of many organic compounds.
John Dalton
John Dalton, 1766–1844, was an English scientist. He revived the atomic theory (see atom), which he formulated in the first volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy. He had already applied the concept to a table of atomic weights (1803), in a paper (1805) on the absorption of gases, and in developing his famous law of partial pressures, known also as Dalton's law. His interest in weather conditions led him to keep daily records from 1787 and to write Meteorological Observations and Essays. Dalton, himself afflicted with color blindness, investigated the condition, known also as Daltonism. From 1793 he taught mathematics and physical sciences at New College, Manchester. He was a member of the Royal Society (from 1822) and in 1825 received its medal for his work on the atomic theory
The five main points of Dalton's Atomic Theory are:
· Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms
· All atoms of a given element are identical
· The atoms of a given element are different than those of any other element
· Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds. A given compound always has the same relative numbers of types of atoms.
· Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, or destroyed in the chemical process. A chemical reaction simply changes the way atoms are grouped together.
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was a British naturalist who achieved lasting fame by convincing the scientific community of the occurrence of evolution and proposing the theory that this could be explained through natural and sexual selection. This theory is now considered the central explanatory paradigm in biology. He firmly established the theory of organic evolution known as Darwinism.
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, (September 22, 1791 – August 25, 1867) was a British scientist (a physicist and chemist) who contributed significantly to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. He also invented the earliest form of the device that was to become the Bunsen burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat.
Michael Faraday is considered to have been one of the great scientists in history. Some historians of science refer to him as the greatest experimentalist in the history of science. It was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in. In 1845 he discovered what is now called the Faraday Effect and the phenomenon that he named diamagnetism.
Conclusion
The defining feature of the Scientific Revolution is that it changed all scientific thought changed during a relatively short period of time. Within a century and a half, man's conception of himself and the universe he inhabited was altered, and the scholastic method of reasoning was replaced by new scientific methods. With the discoveries, inventions and theories of a number of great scientists and theories, the Scientific Revolution became one of the most impacting eras in history, with lasting effects on the modern world. Essentially, the scientific revolution occurred in one quick bound and the advances made from the 17th century onward appear as little skips in comparison.
The Scientific Revolution was an epistemological transformation that swept over Europe in the seventeenth century. This period roughly began with Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who asserted a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos, it ended with Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who proposed universal laws and a Mechanical Universe. However, we must note that historians have consistently disputed the presumed beginning and ending dates of the much-disputed 'Scientific Revolution', as some extend it to 1750, while others say it ended with the publication of Newton's Principia (1687).
Science, in the modern sense of the term, came into being during the Scientific Revolution, with the merging of the craft tradition with scientific theory and the evolution of the scientific method. Before this period, nothing like science in the modern sense existed. The feeling of dissatisfaction with the older philosophical approach had begun much earlier and had produced other results, such as the Protestant Reformation, but the revolution in science began with the work of gifted scientists, including Kepler, in the 16th century and reached full flower in the 17th cent.
The Scientific Revolution developed as an offshoot of the Renaissance. The same spirit of inquiry that fueled the Renaissance led scientists to question traditional beliefs about the workings of the universe. One of the main ideas to come out of the Scientific Revolution was the use of the Scientific Method. This period brought us what all scientists, chemists, biologists and physicists utilize today. The Scientific Method uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on how the universe works. At the beginning of the scientific revolution, science was highly based on Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, but at the end of this period, science was mathematical, mechanical, and empirical.
Factors Which Contributed to the Birth of the Scientific Revolution
There are numerous factors which led to the start of the Scientific Revolution in Europe. They are:
1. The Counter-Reformation of the Church during the Renaissance.
Many Europeans began to question the authority of the Church. Indeed, a large faction broke away from the Church, in doing so breaking free from the restriction of intellectual progress. The fierce censorship of the Church's response to the Reformation, the Counter- Reformation, further pushed people from the Catholic fold and appeared to many as foolishly protective of its outdated doctrines. In this atmosphere the Scientific Revolution blossomed, and the Aristotelian system, which the Church stood by fell.
2. The Optimism of the Renaissance Humanists
The optimism of Renaissance humanists was an early factor in the development of the Scientific Revolution. Europeans, having just endured two centuries of suffering in the form of black plague, starvation, the Hundred Years' War, economic collapse, and the religious insecurity of the Great Schism, emerged in the thirteenth century with a newfound sense of optimism. Weary of a culture of death and loss, they turned to their creativity and intelligence as the answer to alleviating human suffering. Instead of being a wretched soul completely subject to uncontrollable forces such as God, death, and Fortune, he is worthy of dignity and capable of taking control of his destiny.
3. The Printing Press
Probably the greatest contribution to the birth of the Scientific Revolution was the development of printing by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450s. Before the introduction of printing, scholars shared limited numbers of manuscripts, risked confusion by copyist errors and communicated with other scholars by letters. But after the development of movable type and cheaply produced paper, the information could be quickly and widely distributed. The Print Revolution made the complete realization of the scientific method possible.
4. Trade and Expansion of Trade
Navigational problems of sea voyages generated scientific research. Overseas specimens aroused people’s interest in different worlds. Navigation problems also needed mathematics to solve them.
5. Medieval Universities
The growth of universities where medieval philosophers had some independence from theologians also contributed to this. These universities established departments of astronomy, mathematics, and physics.
Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus, Nicholas, 1473–1543, Polish astronomer. The work that immortalized him is De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, in which he set forth his beliefs concerning the universe, known as the Copernican system. That treatise, which was dedicated to Pope Paul III, was probably completed by 1530 but was not published until 1543, when Copernicus was on his deathbed. Modern astronomy was built upon the foundation of the Copernican system. The Copernican system can be summarized in seven propositions. They are:
There is no one center in the universe.
The Earth's center is not the center of the universe.
The center of the universe is near the sun.
The distance from the Earth to the sun is imperceptible compared with the distance to the stars.
The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
The apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun is caused by the Earth revolving around the sun.
The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the motion of the Earth, from which one observes.
Johannes Kepler
Kepler, Johannes 1571–1630, German astronomer. From his student days at the Univ. of Tübingen, he was influenced by the Copernican teachings. From 1593 to 1598 he was professor of mathematics at Graz and while there wrote his Mysterium cosmographicum (1596). This work opened the way to friendly intercourse with Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and in 1600 Kepler became Tycho's assistant in his observatory near Prague. On Tycho's death (1601) Kepler succeeded him as court mathematician to Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. In 1609 he published the results of Tycho's calculations of the orbit of Mars. In this celebrated work were stated the first two of what became known as Kepler's laws. In 1612, becoming mathematician to the states of Upper Austria, he moved to Linz. He wrote an epitome of the astronomy of Copernicus in 1618, and in 1619 De cometis and Harmonice mundi (in which was announced the third of Kepler's laws). In 1626, Kepler moved to Ulm. After his death his manuscript writings, bought by Catherine II of Russia, were placed in the observatory of Pulkovo.
His three laws of planetary motion were:
1. Kepler's elliptical orbit law:
The planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.
2. Kepler's equal-area law:
The line connecting a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal amounts of time.
3. Kepler's law of periods:
The time required for a planet to orbit the sun, called its period, is proportional to the long axis of the ellipse raised to the 3/2 power. The constant of proportionality is the same for all the planets.
Galileo Galilei
Galileo, 1564–1642, was a great Italian astronomer, mathematician, and physicist. By his persistent investigation of natural laws he laid foundations for modern experimental science, and by the construction of astronomical telescopes he greatly enlarged humanity's vision and conception of the universe. He gave a mathematical formulation to many physical laws. Some of Galileo’s fundamental contributions to modern astronomy include:
1. The Telescope
Galileo improved the telescope and was one of the first to use it to observe the sky, and for a time was one of very few people able to construct one good enough for the purpose. Based only on sketchy descriptions of the telescope, invented in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo made his with greater magnification. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Sidereal Messenger).
2. Jupiter’s Moons
On January 7, 1610 Galileo, using his telescope, discovered Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons): Io, Europa, Callisto and Ganymede. He determined that these moons were orbiting the planet since they would appear and disappear, which he attributed to their movement behind Jupiter. Later astronomers overruled Galileo's naming of these objects, changing his Medicean stars to Galilean moons.
3. Sunspots
Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although there is evidence that Chinese astronomers had done so before. Galileo observed the Sun through his telescope and saw that the Sun had dark patches on it that we now call sunspots (he eventually went blind, perhaps from damage suffered by looking at the Sun with his telescope). Furthermore, he observed motion of the sunspots indicating that the Sun was rotating on an axis.
4. The Phases of Venus
Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases like the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. By contrast, the geocentric model of Ptolemy predicted that only crescent and new phases would be seen, since Venus was thought to remain between the Sun and Earth during its orbit around the Earth.
René Descartes
René Descartes (1596–1650), also known as Cartesius, was a noted French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the "Founder of Modern Philosophy" and the "Father of Modern Mathematics," he ranks as one of the most important and influential thinkers of modern times. For good or bad, much of subsequent western philosophy is a reaction to his writings, which have been closely studied from his time down to the present day. Descartes was one of the key thinkers of the Scientific Revolution in the Western World.
Descartes is often regarded as the first modern thinker to provide a philosophical framework for the natural sciences as these began to develop. His most famous statement is ‘Cogito ergo sum’, which in English translates to ‘I think, therefore I am’ (Discourse on Method. 1637).
Apart from philosophy, Descartes was the inventor of the Cartesian coordinate system used in plane geometry and algebra. Descartes founded analytic geometry, that bridge between algebra and geometry crucial to the invention of the calculus and analysis. Descartes' reflections on mind and mechanism began the strain of western thought that much later, impelled by the invention of the electronic computer and by the possibility of machine intelligence, blossomed into.
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman and essayist. He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the scientific revolution. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method. Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses.
The Baconian method involved the collection of data, their judicious interpretation, the carrying out of experiments, thus to learn the secrets of nature by organized observation of its regularities. Bacon's proposals had a powerful influence on the development of science in seventeenth century Europe.
His famous aphorism, ‘knowledge is power’, is found in the Meditations. Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of the human race. Many members of the British Royal Society saw Bacon as advocating the kind of enquiry conducted by that society.
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 – March 31, 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor, and natural philosopher who is generally regarded as one of the most influential scientists in history. Newton was a fellow of the Royal Society of England. Newton summarized his discoveries in terrestrial and celestial mechanics in his Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica [mathematical principles of natural philosophy] (1687), one of the greatest milestones in the history of science, wherein he described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. In it he showed how his principle of universal gravitation provided an explanation both of falling bodies on the earth and of the motions of planets, comets, and other bodies in the heavens.
1. Newton's First Law: Law of Inertia (or Galileo’s Law)
"An object at rest or traveling in uniform motion will remain at rest or traveling in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net force."
2. Newton's second law: Law of Motion
“The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.”
3. Newton's third law: Law of reciprocal actions
“All forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.”
Among other scientific discoveries, Newton realized that the spectrum of colours observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism, and notably argued that light is composed of particles.
Edward Jenner
Edward Jenner (May 17, 1749 – January 26, 1823) was an English country doctor who studied nature and his natural surroundings from childhood and practiced medicine in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England. He is famous as the first doctor to introduce and study the smallpox vaccine. He laid the groundwork for the science of immunology.
He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following a careful study combining observation, experiment and dissection into a description of the previously misunderstood life of the cuckoo in the nest.
His description of the newly-hatched cuckoo pushing its host's eggs and fledglings from the nest (contrary to the existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it) was only confirmed in the 20th century when photography became feasible. Having observed the behaviour, he demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it—the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back which is not present after 12 days of life, in which it cups eggs and other chicks to push them out of the nest. It had been assumed that the adult bird did this, but the adult does not remain in the area for sufficiently long.
His invaluable experiments beginning in 1796 with the vaccination of eight-year-old James Phipps proved that cowpox provided immunity against smallpox. His discovery was instrumental in ridding many areas of the world of a dread disease and laid the foundations of modern immunology as a science.
William Harvey
William Harvey (April 1, 1578–June 3, 1657) was an English physician considered by many to have laid the foundation of modern medicine. Harvey was first to demonstrate the function of the heart and the complete circulation of the blood, a feat especially remarkable because it was accomplished without the aid of a microscope. Acceptance of his theories was slow in coming, and it was not until 1827 that they were fully substantiated. He also contributed greatly to the advance of comparative anatomy and embryology. He also hypothesized the existence of a mammalian egg, and dissected dozens of deer in the King's hunting park in hopes of finding one, although he failed to do so.
Joseph Lister
Joseph Lister, (April 5, 1827 – February 10, 1912) was a famous British surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds.
He brought to surgery the principle of antisepsis, an outgrowth of Pasteur's theory that bacteria cause infection. In 1865, Lister proved the effectiveness of his methods, thus founding modern antiseptic surgery. Using carbolic acid as the antiseptic agent, he devised techniques of applying it that, when used in conjunction with his heat sterilization of instruments, brought about dramatic decreases in postoperative fatality. He developed absorbable ligatures and the drainage tube, both of which have come into general use for wounds and incisions.
Antoine Lavoisier
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794) was a French nobleman, chemist, physicist, financer, biologist, and economist. The "father of modern chemistry," he stated the first version of the Law of Conservation of Matter, recognized and named oxygen (1778), disproved the phlogiston theory, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.
Much of his work was the result of extending and coordinating the research of others; his concepts were largely evolved through his superior ability to organize and interpret and were substantiated by his own experiments. He was one of the first to introduce effective quantitative methods in the study of chemical reactions. He explained combustion and thereby discredited the phlogiston theory. He also described clearly the role of oxygen in the respiration of both animals and plants. His classification of substances is the basis of the modern distinction between chemical elements and compounds and of the system of chemical nomenclature. He also conducted experiments to establish the composition of water and of many organic compounds.
John Dalton
John Dalton, 1766–1844, was an English scientist. He revived the atomic theory (see atom), which he formulated in the first volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy. He had already applied the concept to a table of atomic weights (1803), in a paper (1805) on the absorption of gases, and in developing his famous law of partial pressures, known also as Dalton's law. His interest in weather conditions led him to keep daily records from 1787 and to write Meteorological Observations and Essays. Dalton, himself afflicted with color blindness, investigated the condition, known also as Daltonism. From 1793 he taught mathematics and physical sciences at New College, Manchester. He was a member of the Royal Society (from 1822) and in 1825 received its medal for his work on the atomic theory
The five main points of Dalton's Atomic Theory are:
· Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms
· All atoms of a given element are identical
· The atoms of a given element are different than those of any other element
· Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds. A given compound always has the same relative numbers of types of atoms.
· Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, or destroyed in the chemical process. A chemical reaction simply changes the way atoms are grouped together.
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was a British naturalist who achieved lasting fame by convincing the scientific community of the occurrence of evolution and proposing the theory that this could be explained through natural and sexual selection. This theory is now considered the central explanatory paradigm in biology. He firmly established the theory of organic evolution known as Darwinism.
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, (September 22, 1791 – August 25, 1867) was a British scientist (a physicist and chemist) who contributed significantly to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. He also invented the earliest form of the device that was to become the Bunsen burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat.
Michael Faraday is considered to have been one of the great scientists in history. Some historians of science refer to him as the greatest experimentalist in the history of science. It was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in. In 1845 he discovered what is now called the Faraday Effect and the phenomenon that he named diamagnetism.
Conclusion
The defining feature of the Scientific Revolution is that it changed all scientific thought changed during a relatively short period of time. Within a century and a half, man's conception of himself and the universe he inhabited was altered, and the scholastic method of reasoning was replaced by new scientific methods. With the discoveries, inventions and theories of a number of great scientists and theories, the Scientific Revolution became one of the most impacting eras in history, with lasting effects on the modern world. Essentially, the scientific revolution occurred in one quick bound and the advances made from the 17th century onward appear as little skips in comparison.
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